tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-33530803079775647712024-03-07T21:42:47.003-08:00valuable info around the worldmarliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.comBlogger17125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-18426150316969838032008-09-03T07:48:00.000-07:002008-09-03T07:59:19.751-07:00Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde<div style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;">Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde is a novella written by the Scottish author Robert Louis Stevenson and first published in 1886. It is about a London lawyer who investigates strange occurrences between his old friend, Dr Henry Jekyll, and the misanthropic Edward Hyde. The work is known for its vivid portrayal of the psychopathology of a split personality; in mainstream culture the very phrase "Jekyll and Hyde" has come to mean a person who may show a distinctly different character, or profoundly different behaviour, from one situation to the next, as if almost another person, possibly because of the rare disorder "multiple personality disorder" (more recently renamed "Dissociative Identity Disorder").<br /><br />Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde was an immediate success and one of Stevenson's best-selling works. Stage adaptations began in Boston and London within a year of its publication and it has gone on to inspire scores of major film and stage performances.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">History</span><br /><br />Stevenson had long been interested in the idea of the duality of alien nature and how to incorporate the interplay of good and evil into a story. While still a teenager, he developed a script for a play on Deacon Brodie, which he later reworked with the help of W. E. Henley and saw produced for the first time in 1882. In the late 1884 he wrote the short story "Markheim," which he revised in 1885 for publication in a Christmas annual. One night in late September or early October of 1885, possibly while he was still revising "Markheim," Stevenson had a dream, and on wakening had the intuition for two or three scenes that would appear in the story. "In the small hours of one morning," says Mrs Stevenson, "I was awakened by cries of horror from Louis. Thinking he had a nightmare, I woke him. He said angrily, 'Why did you wake me? I was dreaming a fine bogey tale.' I had awakened him at the first transformation scene ..."<br /><br />Lloyd Osbourne, Stevenson's stepson, remembers, "I don't believe that there was ever such a literary feat before as the writing of Dr. Jekyll. I remember the first reading as if it were yesterday. Louis came downstairs in a fever; read nearly half the book aloud; and then, while we were still gasping, he was away again, and busy writing. I doubt if the first draft took so long as three days".<br /><br />As was the custom, Mrs. Stevenson would read the draft and offer her criticisms in the margins. Louis was confined to bed at the time from a haemorrhage; therefore she left her comments with the manuscript and Louis in the bedroom. She said that in effect the story was really an allegory, but Louis was writing it as a story. After a while Louis called her back into the bedroom and pointed to a pile of ashes: he had burnt the manuscript in fear that he would try to salvage it, and in the process forcing himself to start over from nothing, writing an allegorical story as she had suggested. Scholars debate if he really burnt his manuscript or not. Other scholars suggest her criticism was not about allegory, but about inappropriate sexual content. Whatever the case, there is no direct factual evidence for the burning of the manuscript, but it remains an integral part of the history of the novella.<br /><br />Stevenson re-wrote the story again in three days. According to Osbourne, "The mere physical feat was tremendous; and instead of harming him, it roused and cheered him inexpressibly". He refined and continued to work on it for 4 to 6 weeks afterward.<br /><br />Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde was initially sold as a paperback for one shilling in the UK and one dollar in the U.S. Initially stores would not stock it until a review appeared in The Times, on 25 January 1886, giving it a favourable reception. Within the next six months close to forty thousand copies were sold. By 1901 it was estimated to have sold over 250,000 copies. Its success was probably due more to the "moral instincts of the public" than perception of its artistic merits; it was widely read by those who never otherwise read fiction, quoted in pulpit sermons and in religious papers.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Analysis</span><br /><br />This novel represents a concept in Western culture, that of the inner conflict of humanity's sense of good and evil. It has also been noted as "one of the best guidebooks of the Victorian era because of its piercing description of the fundamental dichotomy of the 19th century outward respectability and inward lust" as it had a tendency for social hypocrisy.<br /><br />Various direct influences have been suggested for Stevenson's interest in the mental condition that separates the sinful from moral self. Among them are the Biblical text of Romans (7:20 "Now if I do that I would not, it is no more I that do it, but sin that dwelleth in me."); the split life in the 1780s of Edinburgh city councillor Deacon William Brodie, master craftsman by day, burglar by night; and James Hogg's novel The Private Memoirs and Confessions of a Justified Sinner (1824), in which a young man falls under the spell of the devil.<br /><br />Literary genres which critics have applied as a framework for interpreting the novel include religious allegory, fable, detective story, sensation fiction, science fiction, doppelgänger literature, Scottish devil tales and gothic novel.<br /><br />Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde has been the influence for The Hulk, Two Face and the general superhero genre for the story's ties to a double life.<br /><br />Stevenson never says exactly what Hyde takes pleasure in on his nightly forays, saying generally that it is something of an evil and lustful nature; thus it is in the context of the times, abhorrent to Victorian religious morality. Hyde may have simply been revelling in activities that were not appropriate to a man of Jekyll's stature. However scientists in the closing decades of the 19th century, within a post-Darwinian perspective, were also beginning to examine various biological influences on human morality, including drug and alcohol addiction, homosexuality, multiple personality disorder, and regressive animality.<br /><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strange_Case_of_Dr_Jekyll_and_Mr_Hyde">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr_Jekyll_and_Mr_Hyde</a><br /></span></div>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-63729491745135460212008-09-02T08:14:00.000-07:002008-09-02T08:19:44.603-07:00The Illuminatus<div style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;">The Illuminatus! Trilogy is a series of three novels written by Robert Shea and Robert Anton Wilson purportedly between 1969 and 1971, and first published in 1975. The trilogy is a satirical, postmodern, science fiction-influenced adventure story; a drug-, sex- and magic-laden trek through a number of conspiracy theories, both historical and imaginary, which hinge around the authors' version of the Illuminati. The narrative often switches between third and first person perspectives and jumps around in time. It is thematically dense, covering topics like counterculture, numerology and Discordianism.<br /><br />The trilogy comprises the books The Eye in the Pyramid, The Golden Apple and Leviathan. They were first published starting in September 1975, as three separate volumes, and in 1984 as an omnibus; they are now more commonly reprinted in the latter form. The trilogy won the Prometheus Hall of Fame Award, designed to honor classic libertarian fiction, in 1986. The authors went on to create several works, both fiction and nonfiction, that further discussed the themes of the trilogy, but no direct sequels were produced. Illuminatus! has been adapted for the stage, and has influenced several modern writers, musicians and games-makers. The popularity of the word "fnord" and the 23 enigma can both be attributed to the trilogy. It remains a seminal work of conspiracy fiction, predating Foucault's Pendulum and The Da Vinci Code by decades.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Narrative</span><br /><br />The plot meanders between the thoughts, hallucinations and inner voices (both real and imagined) of its many characters, as well as through time (past, present and future)—sometimes in mid-sentence. Much of the back story is explained via dialogue between characters, who recount unreliable, often mutually contradictory, versions of their supposed histories. There are even parts in the book where it actually reviews and jokingly deconstructs itself.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Plot summary</span><br /><br />The trilogy's rambling story begins with an investigation by two New York City detectives (Saul Goodman and Barney Muldoon) into the bombing of Confrontation, a leftist magazine, and the disappearance of its editor, Joe Malik. Discovering the magazine's investigation into the John F. Kennedy, Robert F. Kennedy, and Martin Luther King, Jr. assassinations, the two follow a trail of memos that suggest the involvement of powerful secret societies. They slowly become drawn into a web of conspiracy theories. Meanwhile, the magazine's reporter, George Dorn – having been turned loose without support deep in right-wing Mad Dog, Texas – is arrested for possession of drugs. He is jailed and physically threatened, at one point hallucinating about his own execution. The prison is bombed and he is bodily dragged into the hands of the Discordians, led by the enigmatic Hagbard Celine, captain of a golden submarine. Hagbard represents the Discordians in their eternal battle against the Illuminati, the conspiratorial organization that secretly controls the world. He finances his operations by smuggling illicit substances.<br /><br />The plot meanders around the globe to such far-flung locations as Las Vegas, Nevada (where a potentially deadly, secret U.S. government-developed mutated anthrax epidemic has been accidentally unleashed); Atlantis (where Howard, the talking porpoise, and his porpoise aides help Hagbard battle the Illuminati); Chicago (where someone resembling John Dillinger was killed many years ago); and to the island of Fernando Poo (the location of the next great Cold War standoff between Russia, China and the USA).<br /><br />The evil scheme uncovered late in the tale is an attempt to immanentize the eschaton (a catchphrase meaning "bringing about the end of the world" or "creating heaven on earth", and derived from a quotation in the works of Eric Voegelin). Here it refers to the secret scheme of the American Medical Association, an evil rock-and-roll band, to bring about a mass human sacrifice, the purpose of which is the release of enough "life-energy" to give eternal life to a select group of initiates, including Adolf Hitler. The AMA are four siblings who comprise four of the five mysterious Illuminati Primi. The identity of the fifth remains unknown for much of the trilogy. The first European "Woodstock" festival, held at Ingolstadt, Bavaria, Germany, is the chosen location for the sacrifice of the unwary victims, via the reawakening of hibernating Nazi battalions from the bottom of nearby Lake Totenkopf. The plot is foiled when, with the help of a 50-foot-tall incarnation of the goddess Eris, the four members of the AMA are killed: Wilhelm is killed by the monstrous alien being Yog-Sothoth, Wolfgang is shot by John Dillinger, Winifred is drowned by porpoises, and Werner is trapped in a sinking car.<br /><br />The major protagonists, now gathered together onboard the submarine, are menaced by the Leviathan, a giant, pyramid-shaped single-cell sea monster that has been growing in size for hundreds of millions of years. The over-the-top nature of this encounter leads some of the characters to question whether they are merely characters in a book. This metafictional note is swiftly rejected (or ignored) as they turn their attention to the monster again. The threat is neutralized by offering up their onboard computer as something for the creature to communicate with to ease its loneliness. Finally, Hagbard Celine reveals himself as the fifth Illuminatus Primus — he has been toying with both sides and playing them off against each other in order to keep balance. He is a representative of the "true" Illuminati, whose aim is to spread the idea that everybody is free to do whatever they want at all times.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Titles</span><br /><br />The titles of the three volumes or parts (the front covers were titled Illuminatus! Part I The Eye in the Pyramid, Illuminatus! Part II The Golden Apple and Illuminatus! Part III Leviathan) refer to recurring symbols that relate to elements of the plot. The Eye in the Pyramid refers to the Eye of Providence, which in the novel represents in particular the Bavarian Illuminati, and makes a number of appearances (for example, as an altar and a tattoo). The Golden Apple refers to the Golden apple of discord, from the Greek myth of the Judgement of Paris. In the trilogy it is used as the symbol of the Legion of Dynamic Discord, a Discordian group; the golden apple makes a number of appearances, for example, on a black flag, and as an emblem on a uniform. Leviathan refers to the Biblical sea monster Leviathan, which is a potential danger to Hagbard's submarine Leif Erickson (from the name of the icelandic discoverer of America).<br /><br />The three parts of the trilogy are subdivided into five "books" named after the five seasons of the Discordian calendar. These books are also subdivided into ten "trips" named after the ten Sephirot. The last trip's conclusion is followed by fourteen appendices named after letters of the Hebrew Alphabet, which share their names with paths on the Tree of Life. The first page of the Appendix includes this mysterious note: "There were originally 22 appendices explaining the secrets of the Illuminati. Eight of the appendices were removed due to the paper shortage. They will be printed in heaven", while "Appendix Mem" states: "Where are the missing eight appendices? Answer: Censored." This appears to be another of the authors' jokes, although it is true that eight letters of the Hebrew Alphabet are missing, and the publisher required the authors to cut 500 pages from the book.<br /><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminatus">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminatus</a><br /></span></div>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-69411633384305712992008-09-02T08:04:00.000-07:002008-09-02T08:11:12.346-07:00Frankenstein<div style="text-align: justify;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;">Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus is a novel written by the British author Mary Shelley. Shelley wrote the novel when she was 19 or 20 years old. The first edition was published anonymously in London in 1818. Shelley's name appears on the revised third edition, published in 1831. The title of the novel refers to a scientist, Victor Frankenstein, who learns how to create life and creates a being in the likeness of man, but larger than average and more powerful. In popular culture, people have tended to refer to the Creature as "Frankenstein", despite this being the name of the scientist. Frankenstein is a novel infused with some elements of the Gothic novel and the Romantic movement. It was also a warning against the "over-reaching" of modern man and the Industrial Revolution, alluded to in the novel's subtitle, The Modern Prometheus. The story has had an influence across literature and popular culture and spawned a complete genre of horror stories and films. It is arguably considered the first fully realized science fiction novel. The novel raises many issues that can be linked to today's society.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Shelley's inspiration</span><br /><br />The first draft of Frankenstein, along with Percy Shelley's emendations; page begins "It was on a dreary night of November that I beheld my man completed..."<br /><br />During the rainy summer of 1816, the "Year Without a Summer," the world was locked in a long cold volcanic winter caused by the eruption of Mount Tambora in 1815. Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin, age 19, and her lover (and later husband) Percy Bysshe Shelley, visited Lord Byron at the Villa Diodati by Lake Geneva in Switzerland. The weather was consistently too cold and dreary that summer to enjoy the outdoor holiday activities they had planned, so the group retired indoors until almost dawn talking about science and the supernatural. After reading Fantasmagoriana, an anthology of German ghost stories, they challenged one another to each compose a story of their own, the contest being won by whoever wrote the scariest tale. Mary conceived an idea after she fell into a waking dream or nightmare during which she saw "the pale student of unhallowed arts kneeling beside the thing he had put together." Byron managed to write just a fragment based on the vampire legends he heard while travelling the Balkans, and from this Polidori created The Vampyre (1819), the progenitor of the romantic vampire literary genre. Two legendary horror tales originated from this one circumstance.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Publication</span><br /><br />Mary Shelley completed her writing in May 1817, and Frankenstein, or The Modern Prometheus was first published on 1 January 1818 by the small London publishing house of Harding, Mavor & Jones. It was issued anonymously, with a preface written for Mary by Percy Bysshe Shelley and with a dedication to philosopher William Godwin, her father. It was published in an edition of just 500 copies in three volumes, the standard "triple-decker" format for 19th century first editions. The novel had been previously rejected by Percy Bysshe Shelley's publisher, Charles Ollier and by Byron's publisher John Murray.<br /><br />Critical reception of the book was mostly unfavourable, compounded by confused speculation as to the identity of the author. Sir Walter Scott wrote that "upon the whole, the work impresses us with a high idea of the author's original genius and happy power of expression", but most reviewers thought it "a tissue of horrible and disgusting absurdity" (Quarterly Review).<br /><br />Despite the reviews, Frankenstein achieved an almost immediate popular success. It became widely known especially through melodramatic theatrical adaptations — Mary Shelley saw a production of Presumption; or The Fate of Frankenstein, a play by Richard Brinsley Peake, in 1823. A French translation appeared as early as 1821 (Frankenstein: ou le Prométhée Moderne, translated by Jules Saladin).<br /><br />The second edition of Frankenstein was published on 11 August 1823 in two volumes (by G. and W. B. Whittaker), and this time credited Mary Shelley as the author.<br /><br />On 31 October 1831, the first "popular" edition in one volume appeared, published by Henry Colburn & Richard Bentley. This edition was quite heavily revised by Mary Shelley, and included a new, longer preface by her, presenting a somewhat embellished version of the genesis of the story. This edition tends to be the one most widely read now, although editions containing the original 1818 text are still being published. In fact, many scholars prefer the 1818 edition. They argue that it preserves the spirit of Shelley's original publication (see Anne K. Mellor's "Choosing a Text of Frankenstein to Teach" in the W. W. Norton Critical edition).<br /><br /></span><div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-weight: bold;">Analysis</span><br /><br /></span><span style="font-size:85%;">One interpretation of her novel was alluded to by Shelley herself, in her account of the radical politics of her father, William Godwin:<br /><br /></span><span style="font-size:85%;">"The giant now awoke. The mind, never torpid, but never rouzed to its full energies, received the spark which lit it into an unextinguishable flame. Who can now tell the feelings of liberal men on the first outbreak of the French Revolution. In but too short a time afterwards it became tarnished by the vices of Orléans -- dimmed by the want of talent of the Girondists -- deformed and blood-stained by the Jacobins."<br /><br /></span><span style="font-size:85%;">The book can be seen as a criticism of scientists who are unconcerned by the potential consequences of their work. Victor was heedless of those dangers, and irresponsible with his invention. Instead of immediately destroying the evil he had created, he was overcome by fear and fell psychologically ill. During Justine's trial for murder, he had the chance to perhaps save the young girl by revealing that a violent man had recently declared a vendetta against him and his loved ones. Instead, Frankenstein indulges in his own self-centered grief. The day before Justine is executed and thus resigns herself to her fate and departure from the "sad and bitter world", his sentiments are as such:<br /><br /></span><span style="font-size:85%;">"The poor victim, who was on the morrow to pass the awful boundary between life and death, felt not, as I did, such deep and bitter agony... The tortures of the accused did not equal mine; she was sustained by innocence, but the fangs of remorse tore my bosom and would not forego their hold."<br /><br /></span><span style="font-size:85%;">It is noteworthy, however, that Frankenstein, despite his colossal folly at creating his monster, did realize the foolishness of his actions. In Chapter 24 he warns Walton of the danger inherent in tampering with such evil.<br /><br /></span><span style="font-size:85%;">"Learn from my miseries and do not seek to increase your own."<br /><br /></span><span style="font-size:85%;">These are the words he uses to potentially redeem some part of himself, as well as prevent further evil from occurring.<br /><br /></span><span style="font-size:85%;">Representing a minority opinion, Arthur Belefant in his book, Frankenstein, the Man and the Monster (1999, ISBN 0-9629555-8-2) contends that Mary Shelley's intent was for the reader to understand that the Creature never existed, and Victor Frankenstein committed the three murders. In this interpretation, the story is a study of the moral degradation of Victor, and the science fiction aspects of the story are Victor's imagination.</span><br /></div><span style="font-size:85%;"><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frankenstein</a><br /></span></div>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-55969007111395296742008-08-21T05:38:00.000-07:002008-08-21T05:49:37.863-07:00Mozambique<div style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;">Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Portuguese: Moçambique or República de Moçambique, is a country in southeastern Africa bordered by the Indian Ocean to the east, Tanzania to the north, Malawi and Zambia to the northwest, Zimbabwe to the west and Swaziland and South Africa to the southwest. It was explored by Vasco da Gama in 1498 and colonized by Portugal in 1505. By 1510, the Portuguese had control of all of the former Arab sultanates on the east African coast. From about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts became regular ports of call on the new route to the east.<br /><br />It is a member of the Community of Portuguese Language Countries and the Commonwealth of Nations. Mozambique (Moçambique) was named after Muça Alebique, a sultan.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">History</span><br /><br />Between the first and fourth centuries AD, waves of Bantu-speaking people migrated from the west and north through the Zambezi River valley and then gradually into the plateau and coastal areas. The Bantu were farmers and iron workers.<br /><br />When Portuguese explorers reached Mozambique in 1498, Arab commercial and slave trading settlements had existed along the coast and outlying islands for several centuries. From about 1500, Portuguese trading posts and forts became regular ports of call on the new route to the east. Later, traders and prospectors penetrated the interior regions seeking gold and slaves. Although Portuguese influence gradually expanded, its power was limited and exercised through individual settlers and officials who were granted extensive autonomy. As a result, investment lagged while Lisbon devoted itself to the more lucrative trade with India and the Far East and to the colonisation of Brazil.<br /><br />By the early 20th century the Portuguese had shifted the administration of much of Mozambique to large private companies, like the Mozambique Company, the Zambezi Company and the Niassa Company, controlled and financed mostly by the British, which established railroad lines to neighbouring countries and supplied cheap – often forced – African labor to the mines and plantations of the nearby British colonies and South Africa. Because policies and development plans were primarily designed by the ruling authorities for the benefit of Mozambique's Portuguese population, little attention was paid to Mozambique's tribal integration and the development of its native communities. This affected a majority of the indigenous population who suffered both state-sponsored discrimination and enormous social pressure. Many felt they had received too little opportunity or resources to upgrade their skills and improve their economic and social situation to a degree comparable to that of the Europeans.<br /><br />The Front for the Liberation of Mozambique (FRELIMO), initiated a guerrilla campaign against Portuguese rule in September 1964. This conflict, along with the two others already initiated in the other Portuguese colonies of Angola and Guinea-Bissau, became part of the so-called Portuguese Colonial War (1961-1974).<br /><br />After 10 years of sporadic warfare and Portugal's return to democracy through a leftist military coup in Lisbon (the Carnation Revolution of April 1974), FRELIMO took control of the territory. Within a year, almost all Portuguese population had left – some expelled by the government of the newly-independent territory, some fleeing in fear –, and Mozambique became independent from Portugal on June 25, 1975.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Conflict and civil war</span><br /><br />The new government, under president Samora Machel, gave shelter and support to South African (African National Congress) and Zimbabwean (Zimbabwe African National Union) liberation movements while the governments of first Rhodesia and later South Africa (at that time still operating the Apartheid laws) fostered and financed an armed rebel movement in central Mozambique called the Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO). Hence, civil war, sabotage from neighbouring white-ruled states such as Rhodesia and the Apartheid regime of South Africa, and economic collapse characterized the first decade of Mozambican independence. Also marking this period were the mass exodus of Portuguese nationals and Mozambicans of Portuguese heritage, a weak infrastructure, and government nationalisation of privately owned industries. During most of the civil war, the government was unable to exercise effective control outside of urban areas, many of which were cut off from the capital. An estimated one million Mozambicans perished during the civil war, 1.7 million took refuge in neighbouring states, and several million more were internally displaced. On October 19, 1986 Samora Machel was on his way back from an international meeting in Zambia in the presidential Tupolev Tu-134 aircraft when the plane crashed in the Lebombo Mountains, near Mbuzini. There were nine survivors but President Machel and twenty-four others died, including ministers and officials of the Mozambique government. The United Nations' Soviet Union delegation issued a minority report contending that their expertise and experience had been undermined by the South Africans. Representatives of the Soviet Union advanced the theory that the plane had been intentionally diverted by a false navigational beacon signal, using a technology provided by military intelligence operatives of the South African government (at that time still operating the laws of Apartheid). Machel's successor, Joaquim Chissano, continued the reforms and began peace talks with RENAMO. The new constitution enacted in 1990 provided for a multi-party political system, market-based economy, and free elections. The civil war ended in October 1992 with the Rome General Peace Accords, brokered by the Community of Sant'Egidio. Under supervision of the ONUMOZ peacekeeping force of the United Nations, peace returned to Mozambique.<br /><br />By mid-1995 the more than 1.7 million Mozambican refugees who had sought asylum in neighbouring Malawi, Zimbabwe, Swaziland, Zambia, Tanzania, and South Africa as a result of war and drought had returned, as part of the largest repatriation witnessed in sub-Saharan Africa. Additionally, a further estimated four million internally displaced persons returned to their areas of origin.<br /><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambique">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozambique</a><br /></span></div>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-11500831300394314982008-08-21T05:18:00.000-07:002008-08-21T05:29:46.206-07:00Soekarno-Hatta Airport<div style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Soekarno-Hatta International Airport (Indonesian: Bandar Udara Internasional Soekarno-Hatta) (IATA: CGK, ICAO: WIII) is the main airport serving the greater Jakarta area on the island of Java, Indonesia. The airport is named after the first President of Indonesia, Soekarno, and the first vice-president, Mohammad Hatta. The airport is often called Cengkareng by Indonesian. Its IATA code, CGK is originated from the word Cengkareng, a subdistrict located to the northwest of the city.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Located about 20 km west of Jakarta, in Tangerang Regency, Banten, Soekarno-Hatta airport began to operate in 1985, replacing the former Kemayoran Airport (domestic flights) in Central Jakarta, and Halim Perdanakusuma International Airport in East Jakarta. Kemayoran Airport had since closed. Halim Perdanakusuma is still operating, serving mostly charters and military flights. Terminal 2 was opened in 1992.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">The land area of the airport is 18 km². It has two independent parallel runways separated 2,400 m connected by two cross taxiways. There are two main terminal buildings: Terminal 1 is for all domestic airlines except for flights operated by Garuda Indonesia and Merpati Nusantara Airlines, and Terminal 2 serves all international flights as well as all domestic flights by Garuda and Merpati Nusantara Airlines.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Each terminal building is separated into 3 concourses. Terminal 1A, 1B, and 1C are used for (mostly) domestic flights by Indonesian airlines. Terminal 1A served flights by Lion Air, Wings Air and Indonesia AirAsia.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Terminal 2D and 2E are used to serve all international flights by international airlines. Terminal 2D are for all international airlines served by PT Jasa Angkasa Semesta, one of the ground handlers in the airport. Terminal 2E are for all international airlines served by Garuda, including all international flights of Garuda Merpati. Terminal 2F are for Garuda Indonesia and Merpati Nusantara Airlines domestic flights.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">The airport was designed by Paul Andreu, a French architect who also designed Charles de Gaulle International Airport in Paris. One of the major characteristics of Soekarno-Hatta airport is the incorporation of the local vernacular architecture into the design, and the presence of tropical gardens in between the waiting lounges. However, due to poor maintenance, its not too strategic location, and lack of budget, the airport is inferior to many international airports in the region. However, Soekarno-Hatta International Airport was noted for its beautiful landscaping: the airport was awarded the 1995 Aga Khan Award for Architecture.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Soekarno-Hatta International Airport has 150 check-in counters, 30 baggage carousels and 42 gates. Each sub-terminal has 25 check-in counters, 5 baggage carrousels and 7 gates.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Angkasa Pura II is currently planning to build a new terminal with modern design features. Terminal 3 is being built for low-cost airlines, and already serves hajj flights and transnational migrant laborers. There is a masterplan to make 5 passenger terminals + 1 hajj terminal and 4 runways. In 2009 the airport will be connected to Manggarai Station (future Jakarta central station) by a railway. To finance the expansion, the airport is collecting an Airport Improvement Fee of IDR 100,000 ($9 USD/8 Euro) for each international passenger and IDR 30,000 for each domestic passenger.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">In May 2008, ForbesTraveller.com recognized Soekarno-Hatta International Airport as the 6th most punctual airport in the world with 86.3% of its flights departing on time, while 72.3% arriving ontime.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Soekarno-Hatta International Airport was the 35th busiest airport in 2005/6.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-size:85%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">History</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Between 1928–1974, the Kemayoran Airfield intended for domestic flights was considered too close to an Indonesian military airfield, Halim Perdanakusuma. The civil airspace in the area became narrow, while air traffic increased rapidly, which risked international air traffic. In 1969, a Senior Communication Officers meeting in Bangkok expressed this concern.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">In the early 1970s, with the help of USAID, eight potential locations were analyzed for a new international airport, namely Kemayoran, Malaka, Babakan, Jonggol, Halim, Curug, South Tangerang and North Tangerang. Finally, the North Tangerang airspace was chosen and it was also noted that Jonggol could be used as an alternative airfield. Meanwhile the Indonesian government started to upgrade the Halim Perdanakusumah airfield to be used for domestic flights.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Between 1974–1975, a Canadian consultant consortium consisting of Aviation Planning Services Ltd., ACRESS International Ltd., and Searle Wilbee Rowland (SWR), won a bid for the new airport feasibility project. The feasibility study started on 20 February 1974 with a total cost of 1 million Canadian Dollars. The one-year project proceed with an Indonesian partner represented by PT Konavi. By the end of March 1975, the study revealed a plan to build three inline runways, a perforated road, three international terminal buildings, three domestic buildings and one building for Hajj flights. Three stores for the domestic terminals would be built between 1975–1981 with a cost of US$ 465 million and one domestic terminal including an apron from 1982–1985 with a cost of US$ 126 million. A new terminal project, named the Jakarta International Airport Cengkareng (code: JIA-C), began.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-size:85%;" ><span style="font-family:arial;">Ground Transportation</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Soekarno-Hatta International Airport provides a shuttle bus which connects Terminal 1 and 2. CGK also provides parking lots however passengers should be noted that these parking lots are often over capacity.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Depending on traffic, Soekarno-Hatta is a 30 minute drive from Jakarta's city center. Currently a DAMRI Shuttle Bus route links CGK to Rawamangun, Blok M/Kebayoran, Gambir, Bekasi, Depok and Bogor. Taxis are provided and is about 30 to 45 minutes into center city Jakarta. Car rental is provided by Avis, Bluebird, Goldenbird and Europcar.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">PT RaiLink, subsidiary of PT KA plans to connect Soekarno-Hatta International Airport to Manggarai station by train service. The elevated train service construction started in March 2008 and finished in June 2009.</span></span><br /><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">It is strongly recommended that you allow at least one hour to get to the airport from central Jakarta. If you are leaving the city after 4pm on any day, but especially a Friday, allow 90 minutes. Arriving into Jakarta from other cities you should plan to arrive after 9am so that you miss the heavy traffic. Morning commute from airport to the city can be as much as 2 to 3 hours depending on rain, inundation, incidents, roadworks or the toll operators randomly changing the payment methods or on/off ramp configurations. Furthermore, there is only one toll road servicing the airport, and as such you could miss your flight or be unavoidably delayed if not taking all these things into consideration.<br /><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soekarno-Hatta_International_Airport">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soekarno-Hatta_International_Airport</a><br /></span></span></div>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-14994561557768721882008-08-19T07:02:00.000-07:002008-08-19T07:06:52.805-07:00Congonhas Airport<div style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;">Congonhas/São Paulo International Airport or Congonhas Airport (IATA: CGH, ICAO: SBSP) is one of São Paulo's three commercial airports, situated 8 kilometres (5 miles) from the city downtown at Washington Luís Avenue, in Campo Belo district. It is owned by the City of São Paulo and managed by Infraero. In 2007, it was the busiest airport in Brazil in terms of aircraft movements and the second busiest in terms of passengers, handling 205,130 aircraft movements and 15,244,401 passengers.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">History</span><br /><br />The airport's name came from a plant that used to be common in the area where the airport was built. The airport was initially planned in 1919, but it did not open until September 12, 1936. By 1957, the airport was the third busiest in the world for cargo and freight. The passenger terminal's central hall is considered one of the most outstanding examples of modern architecture in São Paulo. However, modernizing and enlargement works conducted at the terminal from 2003 onwards, while trying to preserve the look of the older, historic section, still made the latter lose much of its former character.<br /><br />Congonhas Airport is the main hub of Brazil's largest airlines: TAM Airlines (TAM Linhas Aéreas), Gol Transportes Aéreos and Varig.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Importance to the city</span><br /><br />Congonhas was São Paulo's main airport until 1985, when São Paulo-Guarulhos International Airport was built because of congestion at Congonhas and because the latter's short runways could not handle the large aircraft required for long-haul flights.<br /><br />In spite of that, Congonhas Airport continues to be important to the city for regional and short-distance domestic flights. Given the concentration of Brazil's economy in the Central-Southern region, where São Paulo is located, such flights make up the greatest share of the country's domestic air traffic. Therefore, even after Guarulhos International Airport was opened, Congonhas continued to face congestion problems (and still does), regarding both the number of passengers and the number of flight operations. In spite of continuing modernization works, it is a small and outdated airport for today's standards, and its relatively short runways cannot be extended because of the sheer urban growth of São Paulo, which has completely surrounded and engulfed the airport.<br /><br />Indeed, the view from the landing approach to Congonhas can be spectacular, with the airplane flying very low over massive clusters of tall skyscrapers, especially when the plane approaches from the north. It is the short distance from downtown and from the major business areas of Paulista, Faria Lima and Luís Carlos Berrini avenues that still makes Congonhas a favorite of passengers, especially business travelers, much in the same way as Ronald Reagan National Airport next to Washington, D.C. and LaGuardia Airport in New York.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Former international operations</span><br /><br />The airport still keeps the "International" designation in its official name, and until the 1980s it did operate direct international flights to neighbouring countries such as Argentina, Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia, as well as intercontinental flights through connections at Rio de Janeiro-Galeão International Airport. However, since the opening of Guarulhos Airport, international flights are no longer operated (or even allowed) at Congonhas.<br /><br />With a much longer runway and better weather conditions, Viracopos International Airport was the main international airport serving São Paulo until 1985, but its very distant location in Campinas, 100 km (62 miles) from downtown São Paulo, made it very inconvenient for passengers and airlines - so much that most international passengers preferred to board instead a flight from Congonhas Airport to Rio de Janeiro-Galeão (or vice versa), connecting with their international flights there. At that time, Viracopos even appeared on the Guinness Book of Records as the farthest airport from the city it allegedly served (a dubious title that now probably rests with Gonggar Airport, which lies at about the same distance from Lhasa, Tibet).<br /><br />Today, Guarulhos Airport handles all international passenger traffic to and from São Paulo, but Viracopos remains the second busiest Brazilian airport for cargo operations, both domestic and international. It also has some domestic passenger traffic, catering to the local market of the prosperous Campinas region.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Safety concerns</span><br /><br />The airport has been troubled by slippery runways and has had several accidents where water accumulation has been a significant factor (most notably, the one involving TAM Brazilian Airlines Flight 3054 in July 2007). Although the main runway was repaved in June 2007, its new rainwater drainage grooves were only finished in September 2007. The approach path over densely populated areas causes noise and raises further safety concerns.<br /><br />The largest aircraft now operating at Congonhas are the Boeing 737-800 (Gol and Varig) and the Airbus A320 (TAM). However, in the past the airport used to have operations with Boeing 767 and Airbus A300 wide-body aircraft, by the now-defunct airlines Transbrasil, VASP and Cruzeiro.<br /><br />In consequence of the TAM 3054 accident, and with the subsequent public outcry for more safety, the airport has had its operations significantly altered, through the reduction of landing slots and restrictions on flight distance and connections. This has reduced the maximum allowable gross weight of landing aircraft, increasing safety margins. To compensate for the traffic, there are talks of a third commercial airport to be built in a yet-undecided location in São Paulo, but experts heard by the Brazilian press say that the actual construction of such an airport is unlikely, and that an enlargement of Guarulhos Airport, coupled with improvement in the access to that farther airport, is much more likely and feasible.<br /><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congonhas-S%C3%A3o_Paulo_International_Airport">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congonhas_International_Airport</a><br /></span></div>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-49217247545279889132008-08-19T06:48:00.000-07:002008-08-19T06:56:02.522-07:00Armenia<div style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;">Armenia [ɑr'miniə] (help·info) (Armenian: Հայաստան Hayastan), officially in English the Republic of Armenia, is a landlocked mountainous country in Eurasia between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea in the Southern Caucasus. It borders Turkey to the west, Georgia to the north, Azerbaijan to the east, and Iran and the Nakhchivan exclave of Azerbaijan to the south. A transcontinental country at the juncture of Eastern Europe and Western Asia, Armenia has had and continues to have extensive socio-political and cultural connections with Europe.<br /><br />A former republic of the Soviet Union, Armenia is a unitary, multiparty, democratic nation-state with an ancient and historic cultural heritage. The Kingdom of Armenia was the first state to adopt Christianity as its religion in the early years of the 4th century (the traditional date is 301). The modern Republic of Armenia is constitutionally a secular state, although the Christian faith plays a major role in the history and identification of the Armenian people.<br /><br />Armenia is currently a member of more than 40 international organisations, including the United Nations, the Council of Europe, the Asian Development Bank, the Commonwealth of Independent States, the World Trade Organisation and the Organisation of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation. It is a member of the CSTO military alliance and also participates in NATO's Partnership for Peace (PfP) programme. In 2004 its forces joined KFOR, a NATO-led international force in Kosovo. It is also an observer member of the Eurasian Economic Community, La Francophonie, and the Non-Aligned Movement.<br /><br />Armenia is also active in the international sports community with full membership in the Union of European Football Associations and International Ice Hockey Federation. The country is an emerging democracy and, because of its strategic location, lies among both the Russian and Western spheres of influence.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Etymology </span><br /><br />The native Armenian name for the country is Hayk‘. The name in the Middle Ages was extended to Hayastan, by addition of the Iranian suffix -stan (land). The name has traditionally been derived from Hayk (Հայկ), the legendary patriarch of the Armenians and a great-great-grandson of Noah, who according to Moses of Chorene defeated the Babylonian king Bel in 2492 BC, and established his nation in the Ararat region. The further origin of the name is uncertain.<br /><br />The exonym Armenia is first attested in the Old Persian Behistun inscription (515 BC) as Armina. Greek Ἀρμένιοι "Armenians" is attested from about the same time, perhaps the earliest reference being a fragment attributed to Hecataeus of Miletus (476 BC). Herodotus (440 BC) has Ἀρμένιοι δὲ κατά περ Φρύγες ἐσεσάχατο, ἐόντες Φρυγῶν ἄποικοι. "the Armenians were equipped like Phrygians, being Phrygian colonists" (7.73). Some decades later, Xenophon, a Greek general waging war against the Persians, describes many aspects of Armenian village life and hospitality. He relates that the people spoke a language that to his ear sounded like the language of the Persians.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Government and politics</span><br /><br />Politics of Armenia takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic republic. According to the Constitution of Armenia, the President is the head of government and of a multi-party system. Executive power is exercised by the government. Legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament. The unicameral parliament (also called the Azgayin Zhoghov or National Assembly) is controlled by a coalition of three political parties: the conservative Republican party, the Prosperous Armenia party, and the Armenian Revolutionary Federation. The main opposition parties include Artur Baghdasarian's Rule of Law party and Raffi Hovannisian's Heritage party, both of which favor eventual Armenian membership in the European Union and NATO.<br /><br />The Armenian government's stated aim is to build a Western-style parliamentary democracy as the basis of its form of government. It has universal suffrage above the age of eighteen.<br /><br />International observers of Council of Europe and U.S. Department of State have questioned the fairness of Armenia's parliamentary and presidential elections and constitutional referendum since 1995, citing polling deficiencies, lack of cooperation by the Electoral Commission, and poor maintenance of electoral lists and polling places. In its 2008 Nations in Transit report, Freedom House categorized Armenia as a "Semi-consolidated Authoritarian Regime" (along with Moldova, Kosovo, Kyrgyzstan, and Russia) and ranked Armenia 20th among 29 nations, with a "Democracy Score" of 5.21 out of 7 (with 7 having the lowest democratic progress). Since 1999, Freedom House's "Democracy Score" for Armenia has been steadily on the decline (from 4.79 to 5.21). Furthermore, Freedom House ranked Armenia as "partly free" in its 2007 report, though it did not categorise Armenia as an "electoral democracy", indicating an absence of relatively free and competitive elections. However, significant progress has been made and the 2008 Armenian presidential election was hailed as largely democratic by OSCE and Western monitors.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Foreign relations</span><br /><br />Armenia presently maintains good relations with almost every country in the world, with two major exceptions being its immediate neighbours, Turkey and Azerbaijan. Tensions were running high between Armenians and Azerbaijanis during the final years of the Soviet Union. The Nagorno-Karabakh War dominated the region's politics throughout the 1990s. The border between the two rival countries remains closed up to this day, and a permanent solution for the conflict has not been reached despite the mediation provided by organisations such as the OSCE.<br /><br />Turkey also has a long history of poor relations with Armenia over its refusal to acknowledge the Armenian Genocide of 1915. The Karabakh conflict became an excuse for Turkey to close its land border with Armenia in 1993. It has not lifted its blockade despite pressure from the powerful Turkish business lobby interested in Armenian markets. Since 2001, however, the Armenian airline company Armavia regularly flies between the Zvartnots International Airport of Yerevan and Atatürk International Airport of Istanbul.<br /><br />Due to its position between two unfriendly neighbours, Armenia has close security ties with Russia. At the request of the Armenian government, Russia maintains a military base in the northwestern Armenian city of Gyumri as a deterrent against Turkey. Despite this, Armenia has also been looking toward Euro-Atlantic structures in recent years. It maintains good relations with the United States especially through its Armenian diaspora. According to the 2000 US census, there are 385,488 Armenians living in the country.<br /><br />Armenia is also a member of the Council of Europe, maintaining friendly relations with the European Union, especially with its member states such as France and Greece. A 2005 survey reported that 64% of Armenia's population would be in favor of joining the EU. Several Armenian officials have also expressed the desire for their country to eventually become an EU member state, some predicting that it will make an official bid for membership in a few years.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Topography </span><br /><br />The Republic of Armenia, covering an area of 30 000 square kilometres (11,600 sq. mi), is located in the north-east of the Armenian Highland (covering 400 000 km² or 154,000 sq. mi), otherwise known as historical Armenia and considered as the original homeland of Armenians. The terrain is mostly mountainous, with fast flowing rivers and few forests. The climate is highland continental, which means that the country is subjected to hot summers and cold winters. The land rises to 4095 metres (13,435 ft) above sea-level at Mount Aragats, and no point is below 400 metres (1,312 ft) above sea level.<br /><br />Mount Ararat, which was historically part of Armenia, is the highest mountain in the region. Now located in Turkey, but clearly visible in Armenia, it is regarded by the Armenians as a symbol of their land. Because of this, the mountain is present on the Armenian national emblem today.<br /><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armenia</a><br /></span></div>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-78246535115938401342008-08-19T06:37:00.000-07:002008-08-19T06:46:39.551-07:00Ivory Coast<div style="text-align: justify;font-family:arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;">Côte d'Ivoire (pronounced /ˌkoʊt divˈwɑː(r)/ ' in English, IPA: [kot diˈvwaʀ] in French), or Ivory Coast, officially the Republic of Côte d'Ivoire, is a country in West Africa. The government officially discourages the use of the name Ivory Coast in English, preferring the French name Côte d'Ivoire to be used in all languages. With an area of 322,462 km2 Côte d'Ivoire borders Liberia and Guinea to the west, Mali and Burkina Faso to the north, Ghana to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the south. The country's population, which was 15,366,672 in 1998, is estimated to be 18,373,060 in 2008.<br /><br />Côte d'Ivoire is a republic with a strong executive power personified in the President. Its de jure capital is Yamoussoukro and the official language is French. The country is divided into 19 regions and 58 departments. Côte d'Ivoire's economy is largely market-based and relies heavily on agriculture, with smallholder cash crop production being dominant.<br /><br />The country's early history is virtually unknown, although a Neolithic culture is thought to have existed. In the 19th century, it was invaded by two Akan groups. An 1843–1844 treaty made Côte d'Ivoire a protectorate of France and in 1893, it became a French colony. The country became independent on 7 August 1960. Until 1993, it was led by Félix Houphouët-Boigny and was closely associated economically and politically with its West African neighbours, for example, through the formation of the Conseil de l'Entente. At the same time the country maintained close ties to the West, especially to France, which helped its economic development and political stability. The country, through its production of coffee and cocoa, was an economic powerhouse during the 1960s and 1970s in West Africa. As a result of the economic crisis in the 1980s, the country experienced a period of political and social turmoil. Since the end of Houphouët-Boigny's rule, the country's problems have been exacerbated by two coup d’états (1999 and 2001) and a civil war since 2002, which was triggered by sociopolitical tensions triggered by the adoption of a new constitution and the election of Laurent Gbagbo as President of the Republic. The crisis ended after a political agreement was signed by Gbagbo and rebel leader Guillaume Soro on 4 March 2007 in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Etymology</span><br /><br />The country was originally known in English as Ivory Coast. In October 1985, the government requested that the country be known in every language as Côte d'Ivoire, without a hyphen between the two words (thereby contravening the standard rule in French that geographical names with several words must be written with hyphens).<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Usage in English</span><br /><br />Despite the Ivorian government's ruling, "Ivory Coast" (sometimes "the Ivory Coast") is still sometimes used in English:<br /><br /> * BBC usually uses "Ivory Coast" both in news reports and on its page about the country,<br />* The Guardian newspaper's Style Guide says: "Ivory Coast, not 'the Ivory Coast' or 'Côte D'Ivoire'; its nationals are Ivorians",<br />* ABC News, The Times, the New York Times, and the South African Broadcasting Corporation all use "Ivory Coast" either exclusively or predominantly.<br /><br />Governments use "Côte d'Ivoire" for diplomatic reasons. The English country name registered with the United Nations and adopted by ISO 3166 is "Côte d'Ivoire". English-speaking people in neighboring Liberia and Ghana both use "Côte d'Ivoire" in reference to "Ivory Coast".<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Politics</span><br /><br />Since 1983, Côte d'Ivoire's official capital has been Yamoussoukro; Abidjan, however, remains the administrative center. Most countries maintain their embassies in Abidjan, although some (including the United Kingdom) have closed their missions because of the continuing violence and attacks on Europeans. The Ivoirian population continues to suffer because of an ongoing civil war (See the History section above). International human rights organizations have noted problems with the treatment of captive non-combatants by both sides and the re-emergence of child slavery among workers in cocoa production.<br /><br />Although most of the fighting ended by late 2004, the country remained split in two, with the north controlled by the New Forces (FN). A new presidential election was expected to be held in October 2005. However, this election could not be held on time due to delay in preparation and was postponed first to October 2006, and then to October 2007 after an agreement was reached among the rival parties.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Demographics</span><br /><br />77% of the population are considered Ivorians. They represent several different people and language groups. An estimated 65 languages are spoken in the country. One of the most common is Dyula, which acts as a trade language as well as a language commonly spoken by the Muslim population. French, the official language, is taught in schools and serves as a lingua franca in the country. The native born population is roughly split into three groups of Muslim, Christian (primarily Roman Catholic) and animist. Since Côte d'Ivoire has established itself as one of the most successful West African nations, about 20% of the population (about 3.4 million) consists of workers from neighbouring Liberia, Burkina Faso and Guinea, over two thirds of these migrant workers are Muslim. 4% of the population is of non-African ancestry. Many are French, Moroccans, Vietnamese and Spanish citizens, as well as Protestant missionaries from the United States and Canada. In November 2004, around 10,000 French and other foreign nationals evacuated Côte d'Ivoire due to attacks from pro-government youth militias. Aside from French nationals, there are native-born descendants of French settlers who arrived during the country's colonial period.<br /><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%C3%B4te_d%27Ivoire">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivory-Coast</a><br /></span></div>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-13160006060722585562008-08-19T06:30:00.000-07:002008-08-19T06:34:15.172-07:00Ghana<div style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;">The Republic of Ghana is a country in West Africa. It borders Côte d'Ivoire (Ivory Coast) to the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea to the south. The word "Ghana" means "Warrior King", and was the source of the name "Guinea" (via French Guinoye) used to refer to the West African coast (as in Gulf of Guinea).<br /><br />Ghana was inhabited in pre-colonial times by a number of ancient kingdoms, including the Ga Adangbes on the eastern coast, inland Empire of Ashanti and various Fante states along the coast and inland. Trade with European states flourished after contact with the Portuguese in the 15th century, and the British established a crown colony, Gold Coast, in 1874.<br /><br />Upon being the first African nation to achieve independence from the United Kingdom in 1957,[8] the name Ghana was chosen for the new nation to reflect the ancient Empire of Ghana that once extended throughout much of western Africa. In the Ashanti language it is spelled Gaana.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">History</span><br /><br />Medieval Ghana (4th - 13th Century):The Republic of Ghana is named after the medieval Ghana Empire of West Africa.[citation needed] The actual name of the Empire was Ouagadougou. Ghana was the title of the kings who ruled the kingdom.[citation needed] It was controlled by Sundiata in 1240 AD, and absorbed into the larger Mali Empire. (Mali Empire reached its peak of success under Mansa Musa around 1307.) Around 1235, a Muslim leader named Sundiata united warring tribes. He then brought neighboring states under his rule to create the Mali empire.Its capital city was called Kumbi-Saleh.<br /><br />Geographically, the old Ghana was approximately 500 miles (800 km) north of the present Ghana, and occupied the area between Rivers Senegal and Niger.<br /><br />Some inhabitants of present Ghana have ancestors linked with the medieval Ghana. This can be traced down to the Mande and Voltaic people of Northern Ghana--Mamprussi, Dagomba and the Gonja.[citation needed] Anecdotal evidence connected the Akans to this Empire. The evidence lies in names like Danso shared by the Akans of present Ghana and Mandikas of Senegal/Gambia who have strong links with the Empire. Ghana was also the site of the Empire of Ashanti, which was perhaps the most advanced black state in sub-Sahara Africa.[citation needed] It is said that at its peak, the King of Ashanti could field 500,000 troops.<br /><br />Up until March 1957, Ghana was known to much of the world as the Gold Coast. The Portuguese, who came to Ghana in the 15th Century, found so much gold between the rivers Ankobra and the Volta that they named the place Mina - meaning Mine.[citation needed] The Gold Coast was later adopted by English colonists. The French, impressed with the trinkets worn by the coastal people, named the area to the west "Cote d'Ivoire," or Ivory Coast.<br /><br />In 1481, King John II of Portugal commissioned Diogo d'Azambuja to build Elmina Castle, which was completed the next year. Their aim was to trade in gold, ivory and slaves, consolidating their burgeoning power in the region.<br /><br />By 1598, the Dutch had joined them, and built forts at Komenda and Kormantsi. In 1637, they captured Elmina Castle from the Portuguese and Axim in 1642 (Fort St Anthony). Other European traders joined in by the mid 17th century, largely English, Danes and Swedes. The coastline was dotted by more than 30 forts and castles built by Dutch, British and Danish merchants. The Gold Coast became the highest concentration of European military architecture outside of Europe.[citation needed] By the latter part of the 19th century, the Dutch and the British were the only traders left,[citation needed] and after the Dutch withdrew in 1874, Britain made the Gold Coast a protectorate.<br /><br />For most of central sub-Saharan Africa, agricultural expansion marked the period before 500. Farming began earliest on the southern tips of the Sahara, eventually giving rise to village settlements. Toward the end of the classical era, larger regional kingdoms had formed in West Africa, one of which was the Kingdom of Ghana, north of what is today the nation of Ghana. After its fall at the beginning of the 13th century, Akan migrants moved southward then founded several nation-states including the first great Akan empire of the Bono, which is now known as the Brong Ahafo region in Ghana. Later Akan groups such as the Ashanti federation and Fante states are thought to possibly have roots in the original Bono settlement at Bono manso. Much of the area was united under the Empire of Ashanti by the 16th century. The Ashanti government operated first as a loose network and eventually as a centralized kingdom with an advanced, highly-specialized bureaucracy centered in Kumasi.<br /><br />The first contact between the Ghanaian peoples, the Fantes on the coastal area and Europeans occurred in 1482. The Portuguese first landed at Elmina, a coastal city inhabited by the Fanti nation-state in 1482. During the next few centuries parts of the area were controlled by British, Portuguese, and Scandinavian powers, with the British ultimately prevailing. These nation-states maintained varying alliances with the colonial powers and each other, which resulted in the 1806 Ashanti-Fante War, as well as an ongoing struggle by the Empire of Ashanti against the British. Moves toward regional de-colonization began in 1946, and the area's first constitution was promulgated in 1951.<br /><br />Formed from the merger of the British colony Gold Coast, The Empire of Ashanti and the British Togoland trust territory by a UN sponsored plebiscite, Ghana became the first democratic sub-Sahara country in colonial Africa to gain its independence in 1957. Kwame Nkrumah,LIE founder and first president of the modern Ghanaian state, was not only an African anti-colonial leader but also one with a dream of a united Africa which would not drift into neo-colonialism. He was the first African head of state to espouse Pan-Africanism, an idea he came into contact with during his studies at Lincoln University in Pennsylvania (United States), at the time when Marcus Garvey was becoming famous for his "Back to Africa Movement." He merged the dreams of both Marcus Garvey and the celebrated African-American scholar W.E.B. Du Bois into the formation of the modern day Ghana. Ghana's principles of freedom and justice, equity and free education for all, irrespective of ethnic background, religion or creed, borrow from Kwame Nkrumah's implementation of Pan-Africanism.<br /><br />The leader of Ghana, Kwame Nkrumah, was overthrown by a military coup in 1966. It has been argued that this was supported by the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency; that assertion remains generally unproven. A series of subsequent coups ended with the ascension to power of Flight Lieutenant Jerry Rawlings in 1981. These changes resulted in the suspension of the constitution in 1981 and the banning of political parties. A new constitution, restoring multi-party politics, was promulgated in 1992, and Rawlings was elected as president in the free and fair elections of that year and again won the elections 1996 to serve his second term. The constitution prohibited him from running for a third term. John Agyekum Kufuor, the current president, is now serving his second term, which ends in 2008 where another election will be held to elect a new president. 2007 marked Ghana's Golden Jubilee, celebrating fifty years of independence since March 6, 1957.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Languages</span><br /><br />More than 250 languages and dialects are spoken in Ghana. English is the country's official language and predominates government and business affairs. It is also the standard language used for educational instruction. Native Ghanaian languages are divided into two linguistic subfamilies of the Niger-Congo language family. Tamale Languages belonging to the Kwa subfamily are found predominantly to the south of the Volta River, while those belonging to the Gur subfamily are found predominantly to the north. The Kwa group, which is spoken by about 75% of the country's population, includes the Akan, Ga-Dangme, and Ewe languages. The Gur group includes the Gurma, Grusi, and Dagbani languages.<br /><br />Nine languages have the status of government-sponsored languages: Akan, Dagaare/Wale, Dagbani, Dangme, Ewe, Ga, Gonja, Kasem, and Nzema. Though not an official language, Hausa is the lingua-franca spoken among Ghana's Muslims, who comprise about 14% of the population.<br /><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana</a><br /></span></div>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-68807995542437193872008-08-19T06:19:00.000-07:002008-08-19T06:25:43.856-07:00Catalonia<div style="text-align: justify; font-family: arial;"><span style="font-size:85%;">Catalonia (Catalan: Catalunya; Spanish: Cataluña; Aranese: Catalonha), is an Autonomous Community of the Kingdom of Spain. The Autonomous Community of Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an official population of 7,210,508 from which immigrants represent an estimated 12.3% of the total population. It borders France and Andorra to the north, Aragon to the west, the Valencian Community to the south, and the Mediterranean Sea to the east (580 km coastline). Official languages are Catalan, Spanish and Aranese.<br /><br />The capital city is Barcelona. Catalonia is divided into four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its territory corresponds to most of the historical territory of the former Principality of Catalonia.<br /><br />The Spanish Constitution of 1978 declares that Spain is an indissoluble nation that recognizes and guarantees the right to self-government of the "nationalities" and regions that constitute it. Catalonia, alongside Basque Country, Galicia and Andalusia self-ascribed as "nationalities" in the elaborations of their Statutes of Autonomy – the first three acceding to autonomy automatically – and more recently in their new Statutes or recent amendments Aragon, the Valencian Community, the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands also did.<br /><br />The 1979 as well as the current Statute of Autonomy, approved in 2006, state that "Catalonia, as a nationality, exercises its self-government constituted as an autonomous community in accordance with the Constitution and with the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, which is its basic institutional law".<br /><br />The Preamble of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia states the Parliament of Catalonia defined Catalonia as a nation, but that the "Spanish Constitution recognizes Catalonia's national reality as a nationality". While this Statute was approved by and sanctioned by both the Catalan and the Spanish parliaments, and later by referendum in Catalonia, it has been legally contested by the surrounding Autonomous Communities of Aragon, Balearic Islands and the Valencian Community,[4] as well as by the Partido Popular. The objections are based on various topics such as disputed cultural heritage but, especially, on the Statute's alleged breaches of the "solidarity between regions" principle enshrined by the Constitution in fiscal and educational matters. As of December 2007, the Constitutional Court of Spain is assessing the constitutionality of the challenged articles; its binding conclusion is expected for 2008.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">Etymology</span><br /><br />The name of Catalunya, (Catalonia) began to be used in the 12th century in reference to the group of counties that comprised the Marca Hispanica, which gradually became independent from the French. The origin of the term is subject to diverse interpretations. The most accepted theory suggests that Catalunya derives from the term "Land of Castles" , having evolved from the term castlà, the ruler of a castle (see castellan). This theory, therefore, suggests that the term castellà, "Castilian" would have been synonymous.<br /><br />Another theory suggests that Catalunya derives from Gotholàndia, "Land of the Goths" since the Franks usually designated the entire Iberian Peninsula as "Gothia".[citation needed] A similar version is suggested in Encyclopædia Iranica - according to it, the name "is but a slight deformation of Goth-Alania, province of the Goths and Alans".<br /><br />Other theories suggest that the name derives from a mythical German prince, Otger Cataló, or from the Laketani, a Pre-Roman tribe that lived in the area, whose name, due to the Roman influence, evolved to Katelans and then Catalans.<br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;">History</span><br /><br />Like some other parts in the rest of the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula, Catalonia was colonized by Ancient Greeks, who settled around the Roses area. Both Greeks and Carthaginians (who, in the course of the Second Punic War, briefly ruled the territory) interacted with the main Iberian substratum. After the Carthaginian defeat, it became, along with the rest of Hispania, a part of the Roman Empire, Tarraco being one of the main Roman posts in the Iberian Peninsula<br /><br />It then came under Visigothic rule for four centuries after Rome's collapse. In the eighth century, it became under Moorish al-Andalus control. Still, after the defeat of Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi's troops at Tours in 732, the Franks conquered former Visigoth states which had been captured by the Muslims or had become allied with them in what today is the northernmost part of Catalonia. Charlemagne created in 795 which came to be known as the Marca Hispanica, a buffer zone beyond the province of Septimania made up of locally administered separate petty kingdoms which served as a defensive barrier between the Umayyad Moors of Al-Andalus and the Frankish Kingdom.<br /><br />The Catalan culture started to develop in the Middle Ages stemming from a number of these petty kingdoms organized as small counties throughout the northernmost part of Catalonia. The counts of Barcelona were Frankish vassals nominated by the emperor then the king of France, to whom they were feudatories (801-987).<br /><br />In 987 the count of Barcelona did not recognize the French king Hugh Capet and his new dynasty which put it effectively out of the Frankish rule. Two years later, in 989, Catalonia declared its independence. Then, in 1137, Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona married Petronila of Aragon establishing the dynastic union of the County of Barcelona with the Kingdom of Aragon which was to create the Crown of Aragon.<br /><br />It was not until 1258, by means of the Treaty of Corbeil, that the king of France formally relinquished his feudal lordship over the counties of the Principality of Catalonia to the king of Aragon James I, descendant of Ramon Berenguer IV. This Treaty transformed the country's de facto independence into a de jure direct transition from French to Aragonese rule. It also solved a historic incongruence. As part of the Crown of Aragon, Catalonia became a great maritime power, helping to expand the Crown by trade and conquest into the Kingdom of Valencia, the Balearic Islands, and even Sardinia or Sicily.<br /><br />In 1410, King Martin I died without surviving descendants. As a result, by the Pact of Caspe, Ferdinand of Antequera from the Castilian dynasty of Trastamara, received the Crown of Aragon as Ferdinand I of Aragon.<br /><br />His grandson, King Ferdinand II of Aragon married Queen Isabella of Castile in 1469; retrospectively, this is seen as the dawn of the Kingdom of Spain. At that point both Castile and Aragon remained distinct territories, each keeping its own traditional institutions, Parliaments and laws. Political power began to shift away from Aragon toward Castile and, subsequently, from Castile to the Spanish Empire.<br /><br />For an extended period, Catalonia, as part of the Crown of Aragon, continued to retain its own usages and laws, but these gradually eroded in the course of the transition from feudalism to a modern state, fueled by the kings' struggle to have more centralized territories. Over the next few centuries, Catalonia was generally on the losing side of a series of wars that led steadily to more centralization of power in Spain, like the Reapers' War (1640–1652).<br /><br />The most significant conflict was the War of the Spanish Succession, which began when Charles II of Spain (the last Spanish Habsburg) died without a successor in 1700. Catalonia, as the other kingdoms which used to form the Crown of Aragon, mostly rose up in support of the Habsburg pretender Charles of Austria, while the rest of Spain mostly adhered to the French Bourbon claimant, Philip V. Following the fall of Barcelona on 11 September 1714, the Crown of Aragon and its institutions were abolished by the Nueva Planta decrees, under which all its lands were incorporated, as provinces, into a united Spanish administration, as Spain moved towards a centralized government under the new Bourbon dynasty.<br /><br />In the latter half of the 19th century, Catalonia became an industrial center; to this day it remains one of the most industrialised parts of Spain. In the first third of the 20th century, Catalonia gained and lost varying degrees of autonomy several times, receiving its first statute of autonomy during the Second Spanish Republic (1931). This period was marked by politic unrest and the preeminence of the Anarchists during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). After the defeat of the Republic in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) which brought General Francisco Franco to power, his regime suppressed any kind of public activities associated with Catalan nationalism, Anarchism, Socialism, Democracy or Communism, such as publishing books on the matter or simply discussing them in open meetings. As part of this suppression the use of Catalan in government-run institutions and in public events was banned. During later stages of the Francoist regime, certain folkoric or religious celebrations in Catalan were resumed and tolerated. Use of Catalan in the mass media was forbidden, but was permitted from the early 1950s in the theatre. Publishing in Catalan continued throughout the dictatorship.<br /><br />After Franco's death (1975) and with the adoption of a democratic Spanish constitution (1978), Catalonia recovered political and cultural autonomy. Today, Catalonia is one of the most economically dynamic regions of Spain. The Catalan capital and largest city, Barcelona, is a major international cultural centre and a major tourism destination.<br /><br />Catalonia's second statute of autonomy, adopted by the Catalan government on 22 December 1979, officially recognized Catalonia as a nationality. Then, the amended version approved on 9 August 2006 has defined Catalonia as a nation in the preamble. The precise meaning of the term nation is ambiguous as to not conflict with the Spanish Constitution. The Statute of Autonomy also establishes that "Catalonia wishes to develop its political personality within the framework of a State which recognizes and respects the diversity of identities of the peoples of Spain". After the charter was first passed in the regional parliament, it was then edited in conjunction with the Cortes Generales (Spanish bicameral parliament). Except the Partido Popular, all the other political parties represented in the Catalan autonomous Parliament endorsed the final redaction of the statute, which was then approved by means of a referendum held in June 2006 in which 73.9% voted for the autonomy plan and 20.8% against it. The turnout was unprecedentedly low, at around 49% of the total census, which resulted in the highest abstention ever registered in Catalonia in a referendum.<br /><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalonia">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalonia</a><br /></span></div>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-23672961442380201982008-08-14T05:04:00.000-07:002008-08-14T05:11:22.191-07:00Kazakhstan<span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family: arial;">Kazakhstan, also spelled Kazakstan (Kazakh: Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, IPA: [qɑzɑqˈstɑn]; Russian: Казахстан, Kazakhstán, Russian pronunciation: [kazəxˈstan]), officially the Republic of Kazakhstan, is a country in Central Asia and Europe. Ranked as the ninth largest country in the world as well as the world's largest landlocked country, it has a territory of 2,727,300 km² (greater than Western Europe). It is bordered by Russia, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan and China. The country also borders on a significant part of the Caspian Sea.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Vast in size, the land in Kazakhstan is very diverse in types of terrain: flatlands, steppes, taigas, rock-canyons, hills, deltas, mountains, snow-capped mountains, and deserts. Kazakhstan has the 62nd largest population in the world, with a population density of less than 6 people per square kilometre (15 per sq. mi.).</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">For most of its history the territory of modern-day Kazakhstan has been inhabited by nomadic tribes. By the 16th century the Kazakhs emerged as a distinct group, divided into three hordes. The Russians began advancing into the Kazakh steppe in the 18th century, and by the mid-19th century all of Kazakhstan was part of the Russian Empire. Following the 1917 Russian Revolution, and subsequent civil war, the territory of Kazakhstan was reorganized several times before becoming the Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic in 1936, a part of the USSR. During the 20th century, Kazakhstan was the site of major Soviet projects, including Khrushchev's Virgin Lands campaign, the Baikonur Cosmodrome, and the Semipalatinsk "Polygon", the USSR's primary nuclear weapon testing site.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Kazakhstan declared itself an independent country on December 16, 1991, the last Soviet republic to do so. Its communist-era leader, Nursultan Nazarbayev, became the country's new president. Since independence, Kazakhstan has pursued a balanced foreign policy and worked to develop its economy, especially its hydrocarbon industry. While the country's economic outlook is improving, President Nazarbayev maintains strict control over the country's politics. Several opposition leaders and journalists have been killed in recent years, and Western observers generally do not consider Kazakhstan's elections to be free and fair. Nevertheless, Kazakhstan's international prestige is building. It is now considered to be the dominant state in Central Asia. The country belongs to many international organizations, including the United Nations, NATO's Partnership for Peace, the Commonwealth of Independent States, and the Shanghai Cooperation Organization. In 2010, Kazakhstan will chair the Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe. In 2011, it will form a customs union with Russia and Belarus.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Kazakhstan is ethnically and culturally diverse, in part due to mass deportations of many ethnic groups to the country during Stalin's rule. Kazakhs are the largest group, followed by Russians. Kazakhstan allows freedom of religion, and many different beliefs are represented in the country. Islam is the primary religion, followed by Orthodox Christianity. The official language is Kazakh, though Russian is still commonly used for everyday communication.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">History of Kazakhstan</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">(1) Kazakh Khanate</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Kazakhstan has been inhabited since the Stone Age: the region's climate and terrain are best suited for nomads practising pastoralism. Historians believe that humans first domesticated the horse in the region's vast steppes. While ancient cities Taraz (Aulie-Ata) and Hazrat-e Turkestan had long served as important way-stations along the Silk Road connecting East and West, real political consolidation only began with the Mongol invasion of the early thirteenth century AD. Under the Mongol Empire, administrative districts were established, and these eventually came under the emergent Kazakh Khanate.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Throughout this period traditional nomadic life and a livestock-based economy continued to dominate the steppe. In the 15th century, a distinct Kazakh identity began to emerge among the Turkic tribes, a process which was consolidated by the mid-16th century with the appearance of a distinctive Kazakh language, culture, and economy. Nevertheless, the region was the focus of ever-increasing disputes between the native Kazakh emirs and the neighboring Persian-speaking peoples to the south. By the early 17th century, the Kazakh Khanate was struggling with the impact of tribal rivalries, which has effectively divided the population into the Great, Middle and Little (or Small) Hordes (jüz). Political disunion, tribal rivalries, and the diminishing importance of overland trade routes between East and West weakened the Kazakh Khanate.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">During the 17th century Kazakhs fought Oirats, a federation of western Mongol tribes, among which the Dzungars were particularly aggressive. The beginning of the 18th century marked the zenith of the Kazakh Khanate. During this period the Little Horde participated in the 1723–1730 war against the Dzungars, following their "Great Disaster" invasion of Kazakh territories. Under leadership Abul Khair Khan the Kazakhs won major victories over the Dzungar at the Bulanty River, in 1726, and at the Battle of Anrakay in 1729. Ablai Khan participated in the most significant battles against the Dzungars from the 1720s to the 1750s, for which he was declared a "batyr" ("hero") by the people. Kazakhs were also a victims of constant raids carried out by the Volga Kalmyks.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">(2) Russian Empire</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">In the 19th century, the Russian Empire began to expand, and spread into Central Asia. The "Great Game" period is generally regarded as running from approximately 1813 to the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907. The tsars effectively ruled over most of the territory belonging to what is now the Republic of Kazakhstan.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">The Russian Empire introduced a system of administration and built military garrisons and barracks in its effort to establish a presence in Central Asia in the so-called "Great Game" between it and the United Kingdom. The first Russian outpost, Orsk, was built in 1735. Russia enforced the Russian language in all schools and governmental organizations. Russian efforts to impose its system aroused the extreme resentment by the Kazakh people, and by the 1860s, most Kazakhs resisted Russia's annexation largely because of the disruption it wrought upon the traditional nomadic lifestyle and livestock-based economy, and the associated hunger which was rapidly wiping out some Kazakh tribes. The Kazakh national movement, which began in the late 1800s, sought to preserve the native language and identity by resisting the attempts of the Russian Empire to assimilate and stifle them.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">From the 1890s onwards ever-larger numbers of Slavic settlers began colonising the territory of present-day Kazakhstan, in particular the province of Semirechye. The number of settlers rose still further once the Trans-Aral Railway from Orenburg to Tashkent was completed in 1906, and the movement was overseen and encouraged by a specially created Migration Department (Переселенческое Управление) in St.Petersburg.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">The competition for land and water which ensued between the Kazakhs and the newcomers caused great resentment against colonial rule during the final years of Tsarist Russia, with the most serious uprising, the Central Asian Revolt, occurring in 1916. The Kazakhs attacked Russian and Cossack villages, killing indiscriminately. The Russians' revenge was merciless. A military force drove 300,000 Kazakhs to flee into the mountains or to China. When approximately 80,000 of them returned the next year, many of them were slaughtered by Tsarist forces. During the 1921–22 famine, another million Kazakhs died from starvation.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">(3) Soviet Union</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Although there was a brief period of autonomy (Alash Autonomy) during the tumultuous period following the collapse of the Russian Empire, many uprisings were brutally suppressed, and the Kazakhs eventually succumbed to Soviet rule. In 1920, the area of present-day Kazakhstan became an autonomous republic within R.S.F.S.R..</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Soviet repression of the traditional elite, along with forced collectivization in late 1920s–1930s, brought mass hunger and led to unrest. Between 1926 and 1939, the Kazakh population declined by 22%, due to starvation, violence and mass emigration. Today, the estimates suggest that the population of Kazakhstan would be closer to 20 million if there was no starvation or massacre of Kazakhs. During the 1930s, many renowned Kazakh writers, thinkers, poets, politicians and historians were slaughtered on Stalin's orders, both as part of the repression and as a methodical pattern of suppressing Kazakh identity and culture. Soviet rule took hold, and a communist apparatus steadily worked to fully integrate Kazakhstan into the Soviet system. In 1936 Kazakhstan became a Soviet republic. Kazakhstan experienced population inflows of millions exiled from other parts of the Soviet Union during the 1930s and 1940s; many of the deportation victims were deported to Siberia or Kazakhstan merely due to their ethnic heritage or beliefs, and were in many cases interned in some of the biggest Soviet labor camps. (See also: Population transfer in the Soviet Union, Involuntary settlements in the Soviet Union.) The Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic (SSR) contributed five national divisions to the Soviet Union's World War II effort. In 1947, two years after the end of the war, the Semipalatinsk Test Site, the USSR's main nuclear weapon test site was founded near the city of Semey.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">The period of World War II marked an increase in industrialization and increased mineral extraction in support of the war effort. At the time of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin's death, however, Kazakhstan still had an overwhelmingly agricultural-based economy. In 1953, Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev initiated the ambitious "Virgin Lands" program to turn the traditional pasture lands of Kazakhstan into a major grain-producing region for the Soviet Union. The Virgin Lands policy brought mixed results. However, along with later modernizations under Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev, it accelerated the development of the agricultural sector which remains the source of livelihood for a large percentage of Kazakhstan's population. By 1959, Kazakhs made up 30% of the population. Ethnic Russians accounted for 43%.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Growing tensions within Soviet society led to a demand for political and economic reforms, which came to a head in the 1980s. A factor that has contributed to this immensely was Lavrentii Beria's decision to test a nuclear bomb on the territory of Kazakh SSR in Semipalatinsk (also known as Semey) in 1949. This had a catastrophic ecological and biological effect which was felt generations later, and Kazakh anger toward the Soviet system has escalated. In December 1986, mass demonstrations by young ethnic Kazakhs, later called Jeltoksan riot, took place in Almaty to protest the replacement of the First Secretary of the Communist Party of the Kazakh SSR Dinmukhamed Konayev with Gennady Kolbin from the Russian SFSR. Governmental troops suppressed the unrest, several people were killed and many demonstrators were jailed. In the waning days of Soviet rule, discontent continued to grow and find expression under Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev's policy of glasnost.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial; font-weight: bold;">(4) Independence</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Caught up in the groundswell of Soviet republics seeking greater autonomy, Kazakhstan declared its sovereignty as a republic within the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics in October 1990. Following the August 1991 aborted coup attempt in Moscow and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union, Kazakhstan declared independence on December 16, 1991. It was the last of the Soviet republics to declare independence.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">The years following independence have been marked by significant reforms to the Soviet-style economy and political monopoly on power. Under Nursultan Nazarbayev, who initially came to power in 1989 as the head of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan and was eventually elected President in 1991, Kazakhstan has made significant progress toward developing a market economy. The country has enjoyed significant economic growth since 2000, partly due to its large oil, gas, and mineral reserves.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Democracy, however, has not gained much ground since 1991. "In June 2007, Kazakhstan's parliament passed a law granting President Nursultan Nazarbayev lifetime powers and privileges, including access to future presidents, immunity from criminal prosecution, and influence over domestic and foreign policy. Critics say he has become a de facto "president for life." Over the course of his ten years in power, Nazarbayev has repeatedly censored the press through arbitrary use of "slander" laws, blocked access to opposition web sites (9 November 1999), banned the Wahhabi religious sect (5 September 1998), drawn criticism from Amnesty International for excessive executions following specious trials (March 21, 1996) and harsh prison conditions (13 August 1996), and refused demands that the governors of Kazakhstan's 14 provinces be elected, rather than appointed by the president (April 7, 2000)."<br /><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kazakhstan</a><br /></span></span>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-82342242542358984152008-08-14T04:53:00.000-07:002008-08-14T05:12:52.761-07:00Incheon Airport<span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Incheon International Airport (IIA) (IATA: ICN, ICAO: RKSI) (Korean: 인천국제공항) is the largest airport in South Korea, and one of the largest and busiest in Asia. Rated as the best airport in the world, it received the full 5-star ranking by Skytrax, the prestigious recognition shared only by Hong Kong International Airport and Singapore Changi Airport.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Located 30 minutes away from Seoul, the capital and largest city of South Korea, Incheon International Airport is the main hub for Korean Air, Asiana Airlines and Polar Air Cargo. Additionally, Incheon Tiger Airways the start up Korean subsidiary of Tiger Airways based in Singapore is seeking to base itself at Incheon International Airport.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The airport opened for business in early 2001, replacing the international function of the old Gimpo (formerly Kimpo International) Airport. Gimpo International Airport now serves only domestic destinations, except shuttle flights to Tokyo International Airport (Haneda), Japan and Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport, China.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The airport serves as a hub for international civilian air transportation and cargo traffic in East Asia. Security facilities are state-of-the-art and medical inspection equipment is also very advanced, in response to terrorist threats and various epidemics in southern Asia. As a result, Incheon International Airport is considered Asia's most technologically facilitated airport.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Incheon International Airport is also currently Asia's sixth busiest airport in terms of passengers, the world's fifth busiest airport in terms of cargo and freight, and the world's eleventh busiest airport in terms of international passengers.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >Overview</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Incheon International Airport is located west of Incheon, on Yeongjong-Yongyu Island on the West Coast. In the past, there were two separate islands of Yeongjong and Yongyu but the distance between them that were once covered by the sea got filled to form one island from two. Both of these islands were part of the city of Incheon.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">It is connected to the mainland by Incheon International Airport Expressway (Expressway 130), a part of which is Yeongjong Bridge. The expressway also connects Gimpo Airport and provide connections between domestic flight service with international air traffic, an advantage that makes it far easier to travel from southern Korean regions to Incheon, and then to airports all over the globe. The airport is served by frequent bus service from all parts of South Korea as well as by traditional ferry service between Yeongjong pier and Incheon. Airport limousines operate around the clock from Seoul to Incheon, and several backup highway buses escort people from places within and outside Seoul.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The Incheon International Airport Railroad link to Gimpo International Airport (and Seoul Subway Line 5) opened on March 23, 2007, with a further extension to Seoul Station due for completion by January 2010.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The airport was awarded the "Best in Service Award in Class" at the 1st International Conference on Airport Quality and Service by the IATA and the ACI, and ranked second in "Best Airport Worldwide", behind Hong Kong International Airport, and ahead of Singapore Changi Airport. It was also ranked No. 1 in the world by the Airports Council International.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >History</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">After the Seoul Olympics of 1988, international air traffic to Korea was increasing at a tremendous rate. Especially as time progressed into the 90's, it became apparent that Gimpo International Airport could not keep up with the increase in air traffic. As such, in order to reduce the load on Gimpo International Airport, and establish a new airport which could become the center of air traffic in the region, construction of the airport began in November 1992. The airport was constructed on reclaimed land between Yeongjong Island and Youngyu Island. It took eight years to construct the airport, and an additional six months to test operate. The airport was officially opened in March 2001. The airport was designed to be constructed in multiple stages, more commonly known as phases. Currently, the airport is in the first phase, with the second phase construction progressing.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">When the airport was first opened, there were numerous problems that broke out, most of them having to do with the baggage handling systems. In fact, the problem was first discovered during the test phase, but was never worked out in time. As a result, for a month after the airport opened, the system had to be operated on a semi-automatic mode. Nevertheless, most of the problems were worked out within a month, and the airport continued to operate normally, exceeding all expectations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">After the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, the airport’s security system was upgraded to state of the art systems, and medical inspection equipment was also upgraded in response to the various epidemics occurring in neighboring countries. In addition, following the advice of ICAO on upgrading various facilities as well as independently pursuing airport enhancements have caused the airport to be recognized as the most technologically advanced airport in Asia.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Due to the positive response towards the airport, its air traffic increased tremendously. By early 2002, it became apparent that the airport would be saturated by 2006. As a result, in February 2002, the construction of the second phase was initiated. Originally, the construction were supposed to have ended by December 2008. However, due to the Beijing Olympics in 2008, the construction schedule was modified to allow the construction to end by July 2008.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">On November 15, 2006, the Airbus A380 landed at the airport as part of the first leg of its certification trip. During the visit, the airport observed the operation of other air traffic especially during ground operations. In addition, the plane was docked into one of its boarding gates to ensure that the aircraft was fully compatible with the airport. The results were satisfactory, confirming that the airport would be fully Airbus A380 capable, from the runways to the taxiways, and up to every single boarding dock.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">To further upgrade service, Incheon and major Korean logistics firm Hanjin Corporation (parent company of the Korean Flag Carrier, Korean Air) have signed a contract on 10 January 2008 to build a nine-story hospital near the airport. Once construction is complete in 2011, the Yeongjong Medical Center is expected to serve nearby residents and 30,000 domestic and international tourists who visit Korea every year to receive medical services.<br /><br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incheon_International_Airport">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incheon_International_Airport</a><br /></span></span>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-38151758056206627222008-08-14T04:42:00.000-07:002008-08-14T05:03:29.969-07:00Jerez de la Frontera<span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Jerez de la Frontera is a municipality in the province of Cádiz in the autonomous community of Andalusia in southwestern Spain. As of 2007, the city had 202,687 inhabitants; it is the largest city in the province of Cádiz and the fifth largest in Andalusia. It has become the transportation and communications hub of the province, surpassing even Cádiz, the provincial capital, in economic activity. Jerez de la Frontera is also, in terms of land area, the largest municipality in the province, and its sprawling outlying areas are a fertile zone for agriculture. There are also many cattle ranches and horse-breeding operations.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >The city's name</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Even though there are two other cities in southern Spain named Jerez (Jerez de los Caballeros in Badajoz province and Jerez del Marquesado in Granada province), when one says "Jerez", it is more than likely that it is this city, Jerez de la Frontera, that is meant. In former times, during the Muslim occupation of Iberia, it was called Xerez or Xeres. Frontera in its name refers to its location on the border between the Moorish and Christian regions of Spain during that period. The name of the famous fortified wine, sherry, which originated here, is a corruption of the city's Arabic name, Sherish.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >Points of interest</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The capital of sherry wine, the horse, and flamenco, Jerez, situated midway between the sea and the mountains, has a wealth of appealing tourist attractions, many of them related to the three preoccupations that made the city famous. A visitor will wish to see the famed vineyards, stop at a sherry bodega to see how the fortified wine is made, and taste the product as well. Jerez is the home of the Royal Andalusian School of Equestrian Art, a riding school comparable to the world-famous Spanish Riding School in Vienna, Austria. Jerez, the city where flamenco singing began, is also proud of its Andalusian Centre of Flamenco. There are two museums of note: the Jerez Archaeological Museum and the Atalaya Watch Museum (also known as "Palace of Time").</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The old quarter of Jerez, dating from medieval times, has been named an "Artistic Historic Complex". The Easter week celebrations in Jerez are of "National Touristic Interest", and its remarkable Horse Fair (Feria del Caballo) in May is an event of "International Touristic Interest".</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Jerez is the home of the Xerez Club Deportivo football team. It is also the site of the motorsport track, Circuito Permanente de Jerez, where the annual Motorcycling Grand Prix is contested. The race course is a prime destination for Formula One teams who wish to perform off-season testing; it also hosted the highly controversial 1997 European Grand Prix.<br /><br />Source: <a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerez">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jerez</a><br /></span></span>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-32161392868197288142008-08-12T09:04:00.000-07:002008-08-12T09:07:57.257-07:00Biggin Hill Airport<span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family: arial;">London Biggin Hill Airport, long associated with its key role in WW2, is now much more famous with business aviation fliers as the most convenient and efficient way of accessing London.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Situated just 12 miles from the heart of the capital, passengers can reach their final destination easily and quickly by road or by helicopter transfer to Battersea Heliport.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">The airport handles a wide variety of aircraft – from the smallest single-engined private Piper up to jets of various sizes including Gulfstream, Embraer, Boeing, Cessna and Bombardier.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">London Biggin Hill is dedicated to business aviation operators, their executive clients and aircrew. This is the core business of the airport. It also scores highly with owners and operators who value the location and range of owners’ facilities available.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Maintenance facilities are excellent and the comprehensive fuel services are competitively priced. Secure hangarage is available - and opening hours are convenient and practical.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Click on the buttons above to find out all you need to know. You will soon see why so many informed businesses and individuals make Biggin Hill first choice as their London aviation base.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold; font-family: arial;">History</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">Over the past 40 years, this famous Airport has steadily changed from being a busy RAF base into a commercial regional airport. The historic ties are remembered annually at the international Biggin Hill Air Show. A summary of the history since it opened in 1917 as a communications base is as follows:-</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">1920s Commenced flying.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">1930s Existing north-east south-west runway opened.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">1940s Battle of Britain air station with Spitfires and Hurricanes.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">1950s Front line RAF Station with squadrons of jet fighters.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">1960s Following closure of Croydon Airport, started as a civil airport with HM Immigration and Customs Port of Entry, with light aircraft training and some commercial passenger and cargo flights.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">1970s Acquired by Bromley Council from the RAF for £480,000 in total (£3,342,000 at today’s prices) with a commitment to remain open as an airport. Light aircraft, flying training and commercial passenger and cargo flights increased.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">1980s Operated by the Council as a civil airport with up to 200,000 light aircraft flights per annum. Commercial, scheduled and/or charter passenger flights permitted.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">1988 The Council introduced Airports UK, an airport management company, in a bid to increase revenues, but under a legal clause in their agreement, the Council banned them from permitting scheduled passenger flights altogether. Charter flights were still permitted and members of the public still had the freedom to buy tickets to fly on them.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">1990s With financial pressure to invest more and more ratepayers’ money to meet repairs and operating costs, the Council reversed its decision on scheduled flights in 1991 and actively supported new passenger services. The first regular flights on which the public could buy tickets were to Carlisle and Le Touquet, with services to Manchester, Paris and many other cities planned.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">1994 Unfortunately the measures to increase regular public transport flights did not resolve the financial difficulties of the Airport quickly.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family: arial;">The Council was then prevented by Government policy from spending more ratepayers’ money on repairs, equipment and running costs, so it sold the Airport business ‘as a going concern’ to London Biggin Hill Airport Limited (BHAL). The Airfield was leased for 125 years, on condition that all future costs and repairs would be borne by BHAL, with rent and a share of the profits going to the Council each year.</span><br /><br /><br /><a style="font-family: arial;" href="http://www.bigginhillairport.com/index.htm">Source: http://www.bigginhillairport.com</a><br /></span>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-4148238223470386482008-08-12T08:52:00.000-07:002008-08-12T09:02:34.746-07:00Nagoya<span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Nagoya (名古屋市, Nagoya-shi?) is the fourth-largest city in Japan. Located on the Pacific coast in the Chūbu region on central Honshū, it is the capital of Aichi Prefecture and is one of Japan's major ports along with those of Tokyo, Osaka, Kobe, Yokohama, Chiba, and Hakata. It is also the center of Japan's third largest metropolitan region, known as the Chūkyō Metropolitan Area. As of 2000, Chūkyō Metropolitan Area has 8.74 million people, of which 2.17 million live in the city of Nagoya.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >History</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">In 1610, Tokugawa Ieyasu moved the capital of Owari province from Kiyosu around seven kilometers to a more strategic location in present-day Nagoya.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">A new large castle, Nagoya Castle, was constructed partly from materials sourced from Kiyosu Castle. Along with the construction, the entire town of around 60,000 people, including the temples and shrines, moved from Kiyosu to the new planned town around Nagoya Castle. Around the same time not far away, the ancient Atsuta Shrine was designated as a way station called Miya (the Shrine) on the important Tōkaidō that linked the two capitals of Kyoto and Edo (now Tokyo). The town thus developed around the temple to support travelers. The combination of these two castle and shrine towns forms what we now call Nagoya.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Through the following years Nagoya became an industrial hub for the surrounding region. Its economic sphere included the famous pottery towns Tokoname, Tajimi and Seto, as well as Okazaki, one of the only places where gunpowder was produced under the shogunate. Other industries in the area included cotton and complex mechanical dolls called karakuri ningyo.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Part of the modernization efforts of the Meiji Restoration saw a restructuring of Japan's provinces into prefectures and the government changed from family rule to that by government officials. Nagoya was proclaimed a city on October 1, 1889, and designated a city on September 1, 1956 by government ordinance.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The city's name was historically written as the older Emperor of that time (also read as Nagoya), and as the city is located between Kyoto, Shikoku and Tokyo, it was also historically known as "central capital" (中京, Chūkyō).</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >Sightseeing</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Nagoya's two most famous sightseeing spots are Nagoya Castle and Atsuta Shrine.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Nagoya Castle was built in 1612. Although a large part of it burned down in the fires of World War II, the castle was restored in 1959, adding some modern amenities such as elevators. The castle is very famous for two magnificent Golden Orca (金の鯱, Kin no Shachihoko) on the roof, often used as the symbol of Nagoya.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Atsuta Shrine is known as the second-most venerable shrine in Japan, after Ise Shrine. It is said to enshrine the Kusanagi sword, one of the three imperial regalia of Japan. It holds around 70 festivals in a year, and many people visit the shrine year-round. Also, the shrine has over 4,400 national treasures representing its 2,000 year history.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Other Nagoya attractions include:</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;"> * The Nagoya TV Tower</span><br /><span style="font-family:arial;"> * JR Central Towers of Nagoya Station</span><br /><span style="font-family:arial;"> * Midland Square, the new international sales headquarters for the Toyota Motor Corporation and features Japan's highest open-air observation deck.</span><br /><span style="font-family:arial;"> * The Nagoya Port area (The Nagoya port area includes a themed shopping mall called Italia Mura as well as the popular Port of Nagoya Public Aquarium.)</span><br /><span style="font-family:arial;"> * Higashiyama Zoo and Botanical Gardens.</span><br /><span style="font-family:arial;"> * The Toyota museums, 1. The Toyota Automobile Museum in Nagakute and 2. the Toyota Museum of Industry and Technology near Nagoya station.</span><br /><span style="font-family:arial;"> * The Noritake factory (the home of Noritake fine chinaware) is also open to visitors and allows people to browse through the history of the establishment. Complete with cafe and information/technology displays, as well as shopping facilities, visitors can spend a whole day wandering through the displays and grounds. It also holds a few sad reminders of devastation during the final stages of WWII.</span><br /><span style="font-family:arial;"> * The Nagoya/Boston Museum of Fine Arts (N/BMFA)</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Nagoya was also home to a Pokémon-based theme park and a robot museum, but both are now closed.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >Demographics</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">One of the earliest censuses, carried out in 1889, gave Nagoya's population as 157,496. It reached the 1 million mark in 1934 and, as of 2004, the city had an estimated population of 2,202,111 with a density of 6,745 persons per km². There are estimated to be 945,328 households in the city — a significant increase from 153,370 at the end of World War II, in 1945.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The total area is 326.45 km². Its metropolitan area extends into Mie and Gifu prefectures, with a total population of about 9 million people, with only Osaka and Tokyo being larger.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >Transportation</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Nagoya is served by Chūbu Centrair International Airport (NGO) in the city of Tokoname and by Nagoya Airfield (Komaki Airport, NKM) near the city boundary with Komaki and Kasugai. On February 17, 2005, all of Nagoya Airport's commercial international flights moved to Centrair. Nagoya Airfield is now used for general aviation and airbase facility as well as the main J-Air airline hub.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Nagoya Station, the world's largest train station by floor area[citation needed], is on the Tōkaidō Shinkansen, Tōkaidō Main Line, and Chūō Main Line, among others. The Nagoya Railroad and Kintetsu provide regional rail service to points in the Tōkai and Kansai regions. The city is also serviced by the Nagoya Subway.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Nagoya Port is the largest port by international trade value in Japan. Toyota Motor Corporation uses Nagoya Port for export of their products.<br /><br /><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya">Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagoya</a><br /></span></span>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-58903028996671782522008-08-12T08:44:00.000-07:002008-08-12T09:01:21.311-07:00Shiraz<span style="font-size:85%;"><span style="font-family:arial;">Shiraz (Persian: شیراز Shīrāz) is the fifth most populated city in Iran and the capital of Fars Province. Shiraz is located in the southwest of Iran on the Rudkhaneye Khoshk seasonal river. Shiraz has a moderate climate and has been a regional trade center for more than a thousand years.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The earliest reference to the city, as Tiraziš, is on Elamite clay tablets dated to 2000 BC. In the 13th century, Shiraz became a leading center of the arts and letters, thanks to the encouragement of its ruler and the presence of many Persian scholars and artists. Shiraz was the capital of the Persia during the Zand dynasty from 1750 until 1781, as well as briefly during the Saffarid period.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Shiraz is known as the city of poets, wine and flowers. It is also considered by many Iranians to be the city of gardens, due to the many gardens and fruit trees that can be seen in the city. Shiraz has had major Jewish and Christian communities. The crafts of Shiraz consist of inlaid mosaic work of triangular design; silver-ware; pile carpet-weaving and weaving of kilim, called gilim and jajim in the villages and among the tribes. In Shiraz industries such as cement production, sugar, fertilizers, textile products, wood products, metalwork and rugs dominate. Shirāz also has a major oil refinery and is also a major center for Iran's electronic industries: 53% of Iran's electronic investment has been centered in Shiraz.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >Etymology</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The earliest reference to the city is on Elamite clay tablets dated to 2000 BC, found in June 1970, while digging to make a kiln for a brick factory in the south western corner of the city. The tablets written in ancient Elamite, name a city called Tiraziš. Phonetically, this is interpreted as /tiračis/ or /ćiračis/. This name became Old Persian /širājiš/; through regular sound change comes the modern Persian name Shirāz. The name Shiraz also appears on clay sealings found at a 2nd century AD Sassanid ruin, east of the city.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >History</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >(1) Pre-Islamic</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Shiraz is most likely more than 4000 years old. Cuneiform records from the great ceremonial capital of Persepolis show that Shiraz was a significant township in Achaemenid times. The oldest sample of wine in the world, dating to approximately 7000 years ago, was also discovered on clay jars recovered outside of Shiraz.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >(2) Islamic period</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The city became a provincial capital in 693, after the Arab invaders conquered Istakhr, the nearby Sassanian capital. As Istakhr fell into decline, Shiraz grew in importance under the Arabs and several local dynasties. The Buwayhid dynasty (945 — 1055) made it their capital, building mosques, palaces, a library and an extended city wall.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The city was spared destruction by the invading Mongols when its local ruler offered tributes and submission to Genghis Khan. Shiraz was again spared by Tamerlane when in 1382 the local monarch, Shah Shoja agreed to submit to the invader. In the 13th century, Shiraz became a leading center of the arts and letters, thanks to the encouragement of its ruler and the presence of many Persian scholars and artists. For this reason the city was named by classical geographers Dar al-Elm, the House of Knowledge. Among the important Iranian poets, mystics and philosophers born in Shiraz were the poets Sa'di and Hafez the mystic Roozbehan and the philosopher Mulla Sadra.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">As early as the 11th century, several hundred thousand people inhabited Shiraz. In the 14th century Shiraz had sixty thousand inhabitants. During the 16th century it had a population of 200,000 people, which by the mid-18th century had decreased to only 50,000.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">In 1504 Shiraz was captured by the forces of Ismail I, the founder of the Safavid dynasty. Throughout the Safavid empire (1501–1722) Shiraz remained a provincial capital and Emam Qoli Khan, the governor of Fars under Shah Abbas I, constructed many palaces and ornate buildings in the same style as those built in the same period in Isfahan, the capital of the Empire. After the fall of the Safavids, Shiraz suffered a period of decline, worsened by the raids of the Afghans and the rebellion of its governor against Nader Shah; the latter sent troops to suppress the revolt. The city was besieged for many months and eventually sacked. At the time of Nader Shah's murder in 1747 most of the historical buildings of the city were damaged or ruined, and its population fell to 50,000, a quarter of that of the 16th century.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Shiraz soon returned to prosperity under the enlightened rule of Karim Khan Zand who made it his capital in 1762. Employing more than 12,000 workers he constructed a royal district with a fortress, many administrative buildings, a mosque and one of the finest covered bazaars in Iran. He had a moat built around the city, constructed an irrigation and drainage system, and rebuilt the city walls. However, Karim Khan's heirs failed to secure his gains. When Agha Mohammad Khan, the founder of the Qajar dynasty, eventually came to power, he wreaked his revenge on Shiraz by destroying the city fortification and moving the national capital to Tehran. Although lowered to the rank of provincial capital, Shiraz maintained a level of prosperity as a result of the continuing importance of the trade route to the Persian Gulf and its governorship was a royal prerogative throughout the Qajar dynasty. many of the famous gardens, buildings and residences built during the nineteenth century, contribute to the actual outlook of the city.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">Shiraz is the birthplace of the co-founder of the Bahá'í Faith, the Báb (Siyyid `Ali-Muhammad, 1819-1850). In this city, on the evening of 22 May 1844, he first declared his mission as the bearer of a new divine revelation and for this reason Shiraz is a holy city for Bahá’ís and a place of pilgrimage. In 1910 a pogrom of the Jewish quarter started after false rumours that the Jews had ritually killed a Muslim girl. In the course of the pogrom, 12 Jews were killed and about 50 were injured, and 6,000 Jews of Shiraz were robbed of all their possessions.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The city's role in trade greatly diminished with the opening of the trans-Iranian railway in the 1930s, as trade routes shifted to the ports in Khuzestan. Much of the architectural inheritance of Shiraz, and especially the royal district of the Zands, was either neglected or destroyed as a result of irresponsible town planning under the Pahlavi dynasty. Lacking any great industrial, religious or strategic importance, Shiraz became an administrative centre, although its population has grown considerably since the 1979 revolution.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;" >(3) Islamic Republic</span><br /><br /><span style="font-family:arial;">The municipality of Shiraz and the related cultural institutions have promoted and carried out many important restoration and reconstruction projects through the city. Among the most recent ones are the complete restoration of the Arg of Karim Khan and of the Vakil Bath as well as a comprehensive plan for the preservation of the old city quarters. Other noteworthy initiatives of the municipality include the total renovation of the Qur'an Gate and the mausoleum of the poet Khwaju Kermani, both located in the Allahu Akbar Gorge, as well as the grand project of expansion of the mausoleum of the world famous poet Hafez.</span><br /><br /><br /><a href="http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiraz"><span style="font-family:arial;">Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiraz</span></a></span>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-3353080307977564771.post-49201713628980063592008-08-12T08:06:00.000-07:002008-08-12T09:04:29.692-07:00Catalunya<span style=";font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" >Catalonia (Catalan: Catalunya; Spanish: Cataluña; Aranese: Catalonha), is an Autonomous Community of the Kingdom of Spain. The Autonomous Community of Catalonia covers an area of 32,114 km² and has an official population of 7,210,508 from which immigrants represent an estimated 12.3% of the total population. It borders France and Andorra to the north, Aragon to the west, the Valencian Community to the south, and the Mediterranean Sea to the east (580 km coastline). Official languages are Catalan, Spanish and Aranese.<br /><br />The capital city is Barcelona. Catalonia is divided into four provinces: Barcelona, Girona, Lleida, and Tarragona. Its territory corresponds to most of the historical territory of the former Principality of Catalonia.</span><br /><br /><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" >Legal status within Spain</span><span style=";font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" ><br /><br />The Spanish Constitution of 1978 declares that Spain is an indissoluble nation that recognizes and guarantees the right to self-government of the "nationalities" and regions that constitute it. Catalonia, alongside Basque Country, Galicia and Andalusia self-ascribed as "nationalities" in the elaborations of their Statutes of Autonomy – the first three acceding to autonomy automatically – and more recently in their new Statutes or recent amendments Aragon, the Valencian Community, the Balearic Islands and the Canary Islands also did.<br /><br />The 1979 as well as the current Statute of Autonomy, approved in 2006, state that "Catalonia, as a nationality, exercises its self-government constituted as an autonomous community in accordance with the Constitution and with the Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia, which is its basic institutional law".<br /><br />The Preamble of the 2006 Statute of Autonomy of Catalonia states the Parliament of Catalonia defined Catalonia as a nation, but that the "Spanish Constitution recognizes Catalonia's national reality as a nationality". While this Statute was approved by and sanctioned by both the Catalan and the Spanish parliaments, and later by referendum in Catalonia, it has been legally contested by the surrounding Autonomous Communities of Aragon, Balearic Islands and the Valencian Community, as well as by the Partido Popular. The objections are based on various topics such as disputed cultural heritage but, especially, on the Statute's alleged breaches of the "solidarity between regions" principle enshrined by the Constitution in fiscal and educational matters. As of December 2007, the Constitutional Court of Spain is assessing the constitutionality of the challenged articles; its binding conclusion is expected for 2008.<br /><br /></span><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" >Etymology</span><span style=";font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" ><br /><br />The name of Catalunya, (Catalonia) began to be used in the 12th century in reference to the group of counties that comprised the Marca Hispanica, which gradually became independent from the French. The origin of the term is subject to diverse interpretations. The most accepted theory suggests that Catalunya derives from the term "Land of Castles", having evolved from the term castlà, the ruler of a castle (see castellan). This theory, therefore, suggests that the term castellà, "Castilian" would have been synonymous.<br /><br />Another theory suggests that Catalunya derives from Gotholàndia, "Land of the Goths" since the Franks usually designated the entire Iberian Peninsula as "Gothia".[citation needed] A similar version is suggested in Encyclopædia Iranica - according to it, the name "is but a slight deformation of Goth-Alania, province of the Goths and Alans".<br /><br />Other theories suggest that the name derives from a mythical German prince, Otger Cataló, or from the Laketani, a Pre-Roman tribe that lived in the area, whose name, due to the Roman influence, evolved to Katelans and then Catalans.<br /><br /></span><span style="font-weight: bold;font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" >History</span><span style=";font-family:arial;font-size:85%;" ><br /><br />Like some other parts in the rest of the Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula, Catalonia was colonized by Ancient Greeks, who settled around the Roses area. Both Greeks and Carthaginians (who, in the course of the Second Punic War, briefly ruled the territory) interacted with the main Iberian substratum. After the Carthaginian defeat, it became, along with the rest of Hispania, a part of the Roman Empire, Tarraco being one of the main Roman posts in the Iberian Peninsula<br /><br />It then came under Visigothic rule for four centuries after Rome's collapse. In the eighth century, it became under Moorish al-Andalus control. Still, after the defeat of Emir Abdul Rahman Al Ghafiqi's troops at Tours in 732, the Franks conquered former Visigoth states which had been captured by the Muslims or had become allied with them in what today is the northernmost part of Catalonia. Charlemagne created in 795 which came to be known as the Marca Hispanica, a buffer zone beyond the province of Septimania made up of locally administered separate petty kingdoms which served as a defensive barrier between the Umayyad Moors of Al-Andalus and the Frankish Kingdom.<br /><br />The Catalan culture started to develop in the Middle Ages stemming from a number of these petty kingdoms organized as small counties throughout the northernmost part of Catalonia. The counts of Barcelona were Frankish vassals nominated by the emperor then the king of France, to whom they were feudatories (801-987).<br /><br />In 987 the count of Barcelona did not recognize the French king Hugh Capet and his new dynasty which put it effectively out of the Frankish rule. Two years later, in 989, Catalonia declared its independence. Then, in 1137, Ramon Berenguer IV, Count of Barcelona married Petronila of Aragon establishing the dynastic union of the County of Barcelona with the Kingdom of Aragon which was to create the Crown of Aragon.<br /><br />It was not until 1258, by means of the Treaty of Corbeil, that the king of France formally relinquished his feudal lordship over the counties of the Principality of Catalonia to the king of Aragon James I, descendant of Ramon Berenguer IV. This Treaty transformed the country's de facto independence into a de jure direct transition from French to Aragonese rule. It also solved a historic incongruence. As part of the Crown of Aragon, Catalonia became a great maritime power, helping to expand the Crown by trade and conquest into the Kingdom of Valencia, the Balearic Islands, and even Sardinia or Sicily.<br /><br />In 1410, King Martin I died without surviving descendants. As a result, by the Pact of Caspe, Ferdinand of Antequera from the Castilian dynasty of Trastamara, received the Crown of Aragon as Ferdinand I of Aragon.<br /><br />His grandson, King Ferdinand II of Aragon married Queen Isabella of Castile in 1469; retrospectively, this is seen as the dawn of the Kingdom of Spain. At that point both Castile and Aragon remained distinct territories, each keeping its own traditional institutions, Parliaments and laws. Political power began to shift away from Aragon toward Castile and, subsequently, from Castile to the Spanish Empire.<br /><br />For an extended period, Catalonia, as part of the Crown of Aragon, continued to retain its own usages and laws, but these gradually eroded in the course of the transition from feudalism to a modern state, fueled by the kings' struggle to have more centralized territories. Over the next few centuries, Catalonia was generally on the losing side of a series of wars that led steadily to more centralization of power in Spain, like the Reapers' War (1640–1652).<br /><br />The most significant conflict was the War of the Spanish Succession, which began when Charles II of Spain (the last Spanish Habsburg) died without a successor in 1700. Catalonia, as the other kingdoms which used to form the Crown of Aragon, mostly rose up in support of the Habsburg pretender Charles of Austria, while the rest of Spain mostly adhered to the French Bourbon claimant, Philip V. Following the fall of Barcelona on 11 September 1714, the Crown of Aragon and its institutions were abolished by the Nueva Planta decrees, under which all its lands were incorporated, as provinces, into a united Spanish administration, as Spain moved towards a centralized government under the new Bourbon dynasty.<br /><br />In the latter half of the 19th century, Catalonia became an industrial center; to this day it remains one of the most industrialised parts of Spain. In the first third of the 20th century, Catalonia gained and lost varying degrees of autonomy several times, receiving its first statute of autonomy during the Second Spanish Republic (1931). This period was marked by politic unrest and the preeminence of the Anarchists during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). After the defeat of the Republic in the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939) which brought General Francisco Franco to power, his regime suppressed any kind of public activities associated with Catalan nationalism, Anarchism, Socialism, Democracy or Communism, such as publishing books on the matter or simply discussing them in open meetings. As part of this suppression the use of Catalan in government-run institutions and in public events was banned. During later stages of the Francoist regime, certain folkoric or religious celebrations in Catalan were resumed and tolerated. Use of Catalan in the mass media was forbidden, but was permitted from the early 1950s in the theatre. Publishing in Catalan continued throughout the dictatorship.<br /><br />After Franco's death (1975) and with the adoption of a democratic Spanish constitution (1978), Catalonia recovered political and cultural autonomy. Today, Catalonia is one of the most economically dynamic regions of Spain. The Catalan capital and largest city, Barcelona, is a major international cultural centre and a major tourism destination.<br /><br />Catalonia's second statute of autonomy, adopted by the Catalan government on 22 December 1979, officially recognized Catalonia as a nationality. Then, the amended version approved on 9 August 2006 has defined Catalonia as a nation in the preamble. The precise meaning of the term nation is ambiguous as to not conflict with the Spanish Constitution. The Statute of Autonomy also establishes that "Catalonia wishes to develop its political personality within the framework of a State which recognizes and respects the diversity of identities of the peoples of Spain". After the charter was first passed in the regional parliament, it was then edited in conjunction with the Cortes Generales (Spanish bicameral parliament). Except the Partido Popular, all the other political parties represented in the Catalan autonomous Parliament endorsed the final redaction of the statute, which was then approved by means of a referendum held in June 2006 in which 73.9% voted for the autonomy plan and 20.8% against it. The turnout was unprecedentedly low, at around 49% of the total census, which resulted in the highest abstention ever registered in Catalonia in a referendum.<br /><br /><br /><a href="Source:%20http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalunya">Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalunya</a><br /></span>marliyhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/07105034597273418836noreply@blogger.com0